Global Environmental Changes - Essay Example

Running Head: GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE Global Environmental Change Desertification Declining Biodiversity Academia Desertification and Declining Biodiversity are two of the many challenges posed by Global Environmental Changes. It is, therefore, not surprising that approximately one-third of the earth's land surface is arid desert land with meager rainfall, sparse vegetation and limited population. China's Environmental Protection Agency has reported that Gobi Deserts expanded by 52,400 km2 during 1994-99. Biologists fear the current loss of species is the forerunner of an extinction that will rival the five great mass extinctions recorded in the geological past. Serious threat from oil exploration on the eastern slopes of the Andes and the adjacent Amazonian lowlands of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia have led to a conflict between hydrocarbon hotspot and biodiversity hotspot. Loss of biodiversity and associated ecosystem services is one of the most challenging problems ecologist face. Advances in information technology, featuring computer simulation models built on digital databases and satellite imagery incorporating GPS and GIS can go a long way to identify problems, evaluate risks and design counter measures. Accurate maps are created using remote sensing technology that can play an important role to monitor the environmental effects of human activities on land and water resources. We are passing through the defining moments of human development challenges of the 21st century. Failure to respond will not only stall but also reverse international efforts to reduce poverty. The earth's ecosystems and the biosphere's life-supporting systems need to be understood for survival of mankind. The poorest countries are most vulnerable and will be the first to suffer from global environmental change, though they have contributed least to the problem. Introduction Large-scale global environmental hazards to human existence include climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, biodiversity loss, changes in hydrological systems and the supply of freshwater, land degradation and stresses on food-producing systems (WHO, 2008) 1. Their influence on the earth's ecosystems and the biosphere's life-supporting systems needs to be understood for survival of mankind. It also brings the complexity of the systems upon which we depend. Though there are many factors affecting global environmental changes, in this paper we shall discuss the impact of "desertification" and "dwindling biodiversity" on the earth. Desertification Approximately one-third of the earth's land surface is arid desert land with scanty rainfall, sparse vegetation and limited population (Walker, 1997) 2. Deserts are formed by a combination of factors that change over a period of time and will vary with locations. Unscientific land use practices leads to deterioration in vegetation, soil erosion and salinity directly affecting soil fertility and leads to soil compaction and crusting. Population pressure, socioeconomic factors, globalization, unbridled urbanization and merciless mining indirectly induce desertification. The inability to logically and technologically respond to such demands sets off a downward spiral of land degradation. It is very difficult to distinguish whether desertification was caused by reckless land management practices or from climatic turbulence. Due to its vastness, discussing desertification on a global scale require copious deliberations. This discussion is, therefore, being confined to China, which is big enough and favorably positioned in the northern mid latitudes for such a study. China also suffers from a very patchy distribution of water resources 3. China's Environmental Protection Agency has reported that Gobi Deserts expanded by 52,400 km2 during 1994-99 and is now within striking distance from Beijing. Scientists fear if this rate continues complete desertification will arrive within 15 years. Satellite pictures forewarns how two deserts in North central China are expanding and merging to form a single big entity. In the West, Taklimakan and Kumtag deserts are also heading for a merger. Over plowing and overgrazing have complemented each other to create a 'dust bowl' of historic proportions in China. Sheep and goats destroy the land's protective vegetation and the wind then blows off the topsoil converting productive rangeland into deserts (Brown) 4. Dust storms emanating from China also cause havoc to their eastern neighbors. The United States, a country with comparable grazing capacity, has 97 million cattle compared to 106 million of China. The figure for the guzzling sheep and goats is 8 million versus 298 million. Given its global economic status the entire world has a stake in China winning the war against deserts. But winning will not be easy. A feasibility study puts the cost at $28.3 billion. China is left with a Hobson's choice, either speedily complete the costly and politically mired "South-North Water Transfer" projects that will bring water to parched northern landscape or continue loosing the battle with the advancing deserts. Technology Tools. Methodologies have to be formulated to monitor the evolution of deserts and take timely remedial actions. Certain Benchmark Indicators (B&I) are available to help in this process. Once the indicators can be measured the problems can be effectively addressed with the use of appropriate technology. These B&I provide information, which both policy-makers and the public can understand and relate it to them. They also help to monitor trends and progress in the use and management of natural resources. In the agro climatic regions China has based its B&I system on four facets: Pressure. This indicator points to the reasons that culminate in desertification and whether they are natural or manmade. This helps to assess desertification trends and act as an early warning. State. State indicators characterize the status of natural resources, land use pattern and degradation process. Impact. Impact indicators are used to evaluate the effects of desertification on humans and the environment. Implementation. Is the assessment of actions taken for combating desertification and its impacts on natural resources and human beings. Satellite. World has made impressive progress in technology and there is no shortage of technology to combat desertification. Satellite imaging is an important tool used by Chinese today. Accurate maps are created using Remote Sensing technology that can play an important role to monitor the environmental effects of human activities on land and water resources. Special techniques are used for macro monitoring of desertification. Advanced aerospace RS technology obtains data that is validated using GPS navigation system and finally mapping and data analysis is done using GIS network. Economic Incentives Over plowing is being tackled by monetary compensation to farmers to plant their agricultural land with trees. They are also encouraging pastorals to reduce their flock size by 40 percent; but in communities where wealth is still measured by ownership of livestock such takes are not easy. In a novel attempt some local governments are trying to feed hand-collected forage to livestock confined in sheep-holds, hoping such confinement will help grasslands to green. Legal Aspects. Policy frameworks to contain desertification mainly constitute land use policy (Voegele) 5. Intervention in pastureland tenure policy could make perceptible difference to environmental degradation. China's Grasslands Law (1985) envisaged a gradual approach to regulate livestock production in three phases as under: Allocation of pasture lands to individual households under the "Household Responsibility System". Assignments of pasture carrying capacities. 'Carrot and stick' policy to enforce livestock limits compliance. Accordingly almost all pasturelands were officially contracted to households by late 1990s. However, field observations show that group tenure still remains the norm in many areas. They ascribe it to fencing costs and fear of being denied opportunities to natural forage as and when they present. Certain contradictions exist between the Grasslands Law and other laws, particularly on question of sub-leasing pasture use rights, which provide benefits to poorer families and encourage them to invest both inside and outside the livestock sector. China is on the edge of a conflicting relationship between the global economy and the earth's ecosystem. A human population of 1.3 billion and a livestock population of over 400 million are weighing heavily on the land. It has taken some right steps to halt desertification but to be on top of the issue it has to reduce livestock numbers to a sustainable level. At present this area lacks direction. The U.S. Dust Bowl of the 1930s forced some 2.5 million 'Okies' and other refugees to leave the land. But the dust bowls forming in China is much larger and remember, during the 1930s the U.S. population was only 150 million compared to 1.3 billion in China today. Declining Biodiversity The word "biodiversity" is a contracted version of "biological diversity" (Duffy, 2007) 6. The Convention on Biological Diversity defines biodiversity as: "The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems." Current ecological data paints a dreadful picture about decline in biodiversity called "Global Extinction Crisis" (Eldredge, 2001) 7. Biologists fear the current loss of species is the forerunner of an extinction that will rival the five great mass extinctions recorded in the geological past. They estimate earth is currently losing around 30,000 species every year, a frightful statistic of some three species per hour. Being man-induced The Sixth Extinction will be different from previous events, which were all natural or cosmic upheavals. Biological diversity is not evenly distributed over the earth 8 and much of it is concentrated in a few biologically rich regions and is often under severe threat (Russell et al, 2004) 9. Therefore, we first seek to determine where the largest number of species and biodiversity is to be found and then focus on those areas with the highest levels of threatened species. The most preferred setting has been Dr. Norman Myers "threatened biodiversity hotspots" concept developed in 1988. A biodiversity hotspot must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics and should have lost at least 70% of its original habitat. So far scientists have identified 34 such hotspots. Tropical Andes The richest and most diverse region on earth, Tropical Andes spans 1,542,644 km2, from western Venezuela to northern Chile and Argentina and parts of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia 10. It follows the tropical portion of the Andes Mountains and several adjoining cordilleras. The lower elevations of the hotspot ranges from 1,000 m in the west to 500 m in the east. The great highs and lows of the Andes mountain range with its snowcapped peaks, steep slopes, deep canyons and isolated valleys have led to the evolution of an amazing diversity of microhabitats and species. The world's deepest gorge, the 3,223-m deep del Colca in Peru and the highest navigable lake, Lake Titicaca, located at 3,810 m are located in this hotspot. Depending on the gradients and altitude, different types of vegetation are found. Tropical wet and moist forests are situated between 500 and 1,500 m. Cloud forests at 800 to 3,500 m, which include more than 500,000 km of montane cloud forests and are among the richest and most diverse forests on earth. At altitudes of 3,000-4,800 m grassland and scrubland systems reach up to the snow line. Human Impact. The degree of human impact varies considerably within the region from areas that have lost almost all the original vegetation like the Inter-Andean valleys in Colombia and Ecuador to still largely pristine parts of the eastern slopes in Bolivia and Peru. The Inter-Andean valleys provide the most hospitable environment for humans, hence the most devastated portion of the hotspot. It is estimated that the original forests have largely disappeared and only less than 25 percent remains. The seasonal burning, grazing, agriculture and mining have taken its toll on the paramos and the puna. Drug cartel backed opium poppy cultivation after clearing valuable montane forests is the latest. Chemical defoliants used to destroy these cultivation cause more damage to biodiversity since they penetrate highland ecosystems and trickle down to lower altitudes, a factor that contribute to depletion of downstream marine life. In the lower altitudes a new and serious threat is posed by oil exploration on the eastern slopes of the Andes and the adjacent Amazonian lowlands. Large oil and gas discoveries are converting it into a conflict zone between hydrocarbon and biodiversity hotspots. The growing network of roads also brings hordes of migrants fleeing economic hardships in the highlands. Conservation Programs Though these protected areas cover only 16 percent of its original extent they are still home to some of the most important remnants of Tropical Andes. This calls for new and better-managed parks and "corridors" as found in the Amazon-Andes interface in southern Peru and Bolivia. One such is Man, the largest rainforest biosphere reserve on earth covering about 18,812 km2 protecting some major puna areas, cloud forests and lowland forests. Another major Andean slope ecosystem is the 22,250 km2 Tambopata-Madidi protected area complex called the 'string-of-pearls' straddling the Peru-Bolivia border. These sets of new parks created in the richest portion of the most diverse biodiversity hotspot on earth are significant accomplishments of biodiversity conservation. Conversationalists can also regale in their recent sighting of the lost yellow-eared parrot. Economics The Tropical Andes has benefited from many major conservation investments. For example, the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund has committed $6 million to the Vilcabamba-Ambor Corridor in Peru and Ecuador with the specific objective of building awareness amongst the locals about biodiversity conservation. Similarly the Global Conservation Fund has invested $1.273 million on projects in Bolivia, Colombia, Peru and Ecuador that has added nearly 3 million hectares of new protected areas in some of the highest priority regions in these countries. These are just a few examples of the direct support given for conservation in recent years. Technology Loss of biodiversity and associated ecosystem services is one of the most challenging problems ecologist face. Developing the technology to monitor these changes is the first step in addressing this problem. Advances in information technology, featuring computer simulated models built on digital databases and satellite imagery incorporating GPS and GIS can go a long way to identify problems, evaluate risks and design counter measures. Images obtained through remote sensing can be analyzed for a wide range of anthropogenic turbulences (Clark, 2007) 11. Development of protocols and software that will enable scientists and conservationists to monitor such land degradations and climate changes help predict changes in biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. "IDRISI Andes software", an integrated GIS and Image Processing software solution used by researchers and professionals in many countries, provide over 250 modules for the analysis and display of digital spatial information. Their Land Change Modeler (LCM) software application, commissioned by Conservation International's Andes Center for Biodiversity Conservation, is a popular tool used for many research works. Another popular tool is "Atrium", developed by The Botanical Research Institute of Texas (BRIT) 12 to manage the large volume of data generated through the research activity of the Andes to Amazon Biodiversity Program. An online biodiversity information system, Atrium is the new breed technology for biodiversity research providing scientists, students, and the general public access to large amounts of data generated through research activities. Atrium facilitates the collection, organization and sharing of particular form of life and ecological information generated by biologists, ecologists, geographers, students and local field assistants working in southeastern Peru. With a standard web browser viewers can log into Atrium and search all Peruvian plant specimen collections (over 3,600 collections) and images (over 15,000). Researchers with special access can modify and add new data as well as use the high-resolution images to study specimens. Atrium provides researchers with tools to collaborate worldwide in real time. Today remotely sensed data collection and its analysis have transformed plant habitat inventory and monitoring programs. New exacting tools allow reliable and better quality habitat inventory and monitoring programs. While breakthroughs in technology have provide field biologists with an array of new and exciting tools, the importance of ground-truthing cannot be overlooked. Many remotely sensed vegetation and habitat maps, especially of the tropics, are coarse with scanty details, which needs ground visits to verify facts. Legal Aspects In a biodiversity scenario the most important legal aspects are: Intellectual Property Rights. Intellectual property regime currently in force in the Andean Countries recognize the biological and genetic heritage of the member countries. Granting patents for inventions developed from material obtained from this heritage is linked to satisfying international agreements to avoid funding problems. Access to Genetic Resources. Regime governing access to genetic resources is a legal administrative tool whose main purpose is to guarantee fair and equitable distribution of monetary and non-monetary benefits derived from the use of local genetic resources. It establishes the process that should be followed for using genetic resources and their intangible components. Obtentor Rights. Persons in the Andean region who have invented or obtained a new variety of plant by applying traditional knowledge enjoy the exclusive right to produce and market that plant for a period ranging from fifteen to twenty-five years. The competent authorities in each of the Andean Community Member Countries recognize and guarantee that right by issuing a so-called Obtentor's Certificate. Looking at this region as a whole, there is considerable room for optimism. Although portions of the Tropical Andes have heavily deteriorated, compared to some other hotspots the rate of extinctions has been relatively low. There is still enough time to design and implement conservation program at scales that will ensure the survival of vast majority of life forms that exist in the richest biodiversity hotspots on earth. Conclusion No country, however wealthy or powerful, can escape the impact of global environmental change (HDR, 2008) 13. We are passing through the defining moments of human development challenges of the 21st century. Failure to respond will stall and then reverse international efforts to reduce poverty. The poorest countries and their most vulnerable sections will be the first to suffer, even though they have contributed least to the problem. The window of opportunity for avoiding the most damaging climate change impacts is slowly closing, the world has less than a few decades to change course. Actions taken or not taken during these coming years will have a profound bearing on the future of human existence. The world lacks neither the financial resources nor the technology to decisively act. What is missing is a sense of urgency, human solidarity and collective interest. The Pope has ordained, (Pullella, 2008) 14 "Thou shall not pollute the Earth. Thou shall beware genetic manipulation". Modern times bring with them modern sins and the faithful should be aware of "new" sins such as causing environmental blight. May this guiding spirit light our path. References Cited ATRIUM, "About Atrium", Biodiversity Information System. Retrieved March 21 from: http://atrium.andesamazon.org/index.php. Brown Lester R. "China Losing War With Advancing Deserts" Eco-Economy Updates, Earth Policy Institute August 5, 2003-6 Copyright 2003. Retrieved March 21 from: http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/Update26.htm Accessed on March 21, 2008. Clark Lab News Spring 2007. Retrieved March 21 from Company web site: http://www.environ.pku.edu.cn/env-irc/news/resources/Newsletter_2007_spring.pdf Duffy J. Emmett October 30, 2007. "Biodiversity, Conservation Biology and Ecology". Retrieved March 21 from Encyclopedia of Earth Biodiversity web site: http://www.eoearth.org/article/Biodiversity Eldredge, Niles "The Sixth Extinction" An Action Bioscience.org Article, June 2001. Retrieved March 21 from: http://www.actionbioscience.org/newfrontiers/eldredge2.html HDR (Human Development Report) 2007/08 Published by The United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved March 21 from UNDP website: http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2007-2008/ Pullella, Phillip, "Vatican Lists "New Sins, Including Pollution". Posted in THE HINDU datelined Monday, Mar 10, 2008, 6:00 am IST. Retrieved March 21 from THE Newspaper's web site: http://green.yahoo.com/news/nm/20080310/hl_nm/pope_sins_dc.html Russell A. Mittermeier, Patricio Robles Gil, Michael Hoffmann, John Pilgrim, Thomas Brooks, Cristina Goettsch Mittermeier, John Lamoreux and Gustavo A.B. Da Fonseca, 2004. "Hotspots Revisited: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Eco-regions" Cemex Books on Nature. Retrieved March 21 from CEMEX web site: http://multimedia.conservation.org/cabs/online_pubs/hotspots2/Mesoamerica.html Voegele, Juergen, "Combating Desertification in Western China: A Policy Perspective" China Rural Sector Coordinator World Bank. Retrieved March 21 from: http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/ardext.nsf/17ByDocName/CombatingDesertificationinWesternChinaaPolicyPerspective1/$FILE/combatingdeserticationchinapaper.pdf Walker, A S, 1997, Online Book - "Deserts: Geology and Resources". Retrieved March 21 from: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/contents/ World Health Organization's web site, 2008. Retrieved March 21 from WHO web site: http://www.who.int/globalchange/en/ Appendix 'A' Comparative Per Capita Income and Mortality Rate in Asian Countries Appendix 'B' Water Distribution Pattern In China Some Economic Data: Water Resources Population Cultivated Land G D P Northern China 19% 47% 64% 45% Southern China 81% 53% 35% 55% Source: "China's South-North Water Transfer Project and its Impacts on Economic and Social Development". Bureau for South-North Water Transfer Planning and Design, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of China. Available at: http://www.mwr.gov.cn/english1/20060110/20060110104100XDENTE.pdf Appendix 'C' Map Of Inner Mongolia Source - Desertification Synthesis Report (2005), p.7 Appendix 'D' Global Biodiversity Hotspots Appendix 'E' Map Of Andes Hotspot Read More