The Metatheoretical Assumptions That Underlie Idealism and Realism - Essay Example

Metatheoretical Assumptions that Underlie Idealism and Realism "The great basic question of all philosophy, especially of more recent philosophy, isthat concerning the relation of thinking and beingThe answers which the philosophers gave to this question split them into two great camps. Those who asserted the primacy of spirit to naturecomprised the camp of idealism. The others, who regarded nature as primary, belong to the various schools of materialism." This is what Frederick Engels said in his The End of Classical German Philosophy, as cited by The Encyclopedia of Marxism in its definition of idealism. It also places the fundamental distinction between Idealism and Realism as philosophical approaches. Idealism concerns itself with ideas and places its existence over the nature of the material world, that is, the material world must adhere to the ideas that are presented, whatever they may be. Idealism may be Subjective or Objective, depending on how the idealists view the existence of the sensing world. Idealism is said to be subjective when the external world is believed to be non-existent and that the world beyond sensation cannot be understood. However, it is said to be objective when the external world is the expression of the ideal forces, which may be expressed as the Will of God or the Absolute Idea, that the Mind has direct access with. Because of this latter belief, several methodologies were developed to aid this search for the Absolute Idea. One of the idealistic methods involves elemental analysis - concepts are divided into simple elements which are then subjected to simple and self-evident axioms similar to mathematical principles. In this method, complexity of the social structure is reduced in its elemental form. Another method, considered as the most popular one is the a priori method - an object is understood in terms of logically deducing a general conception of its nature. In this method, premise development is critical in ensuring that the deduction is in its most accurate form. On the other hand, realism claims that ideas must adhere to what is experienced in this world, and hence, upon the materials present in this world (MIA: Encyclopedia of Marxism). In this respect, the debate between idealism and realism is whether what comes first - ideas or materials - and what is more important to pursue. Both philosophical approaches have distinct impact in the operation of the world since their conception. Idealism is able to influence its mode of thinking in politics, philosophy and religion (Hutchison). In politics, Conservative and Liberal idealism takes the center stage. Because the nature of politics is concrete in terms of its actions, these political streams are commonly objective. Nevertheless, they have significant differences in how they act politically. First, the conservatives aim to restore a Golden Age from the past, whereas the liberalists seek to make progress through Utopia (Hutchison). Although the end goal is that of an ideal world, the way in which they view how and especially when to reach these goals is basically different. The conservatives were also more successful in their program. The Christian Republics in Geneva, early Massachusetts and Holland were flourished more than the experimental liberal Utopian communities in terms of economics and culture (Hutchison). The impact of idealism in philosophy is seen from the development of German mode of thinking such as Existentialism, Postmodern Deconstructionism and the concept of the New Age (Hutchison). In religion, idealism was able to influence Greek Orthodox, Protestant and Catholic spirituality in terms of their divine missions. The Greek Orthodox monks, for instance, longs for the restoration of Eden; the Protestant church idealized the state of the early church characterized by simple small sects richly blessed by God; and the Catholics from the words of Pope Gregory VII who calls himself the "vicegerent of Christ" prophesize the restoration of Kingdom of Christ in the millennium or after it (Hutchison). Yet these giant ideologies received major criticisms in their fundamental aims - there is no such thing as Utopia or a Golden Age that may be restored, that is, even if they were able to influence reforms well, they rest on fallacies that prove their actions futile in relation to what they aim for. Because of the belief that such an ideal community can never be achieved, realism is currently dominating political thinking, at least. Although it was not as influential as idealism in the area of philosophy and religion, the scope of political realism is wide enough to cover almost every social relationships (Morgenthau). Thus, even if it is not as dominant as idealism in other areas, realism becomes a compelling global approach. Definition and basic concepts aside, this paper aims to critically examine the positions of idealism and realism in the different metatheoretical assumptions - epistemological, ontological, and axiological; to assess the implications and consequences of their positions in worldly affairs; and to evaluate their relative application in the political arena, particularly in international relations and of morality. Epistemological assumptions concern with positions on the nature of truth and knowledge, whether it is absolute or relative; how knowledge is confirmed as true; the methods of acquiring knowledge and truth; and how truth manifests itself. Ontological assumptions concern with human nature and their actions, and in consequence, over the nature of reality in which human beings are part of; how the nature of reality affects human beings; how human beings influence the conduct of reality through motion and action theory; and how humans are or ought to be characterized, whether in terms of states or traits. Finally, axiological assumptions concern with the role of the values prescribed, that is, whether they are pursued for their own sake or instrumentally, for other greater and more noble values. It also classifies positions as being value-neutral, value-conscious, and/or value-laden (Honors: Communication Capstone Communication Resources). Epistemologically, idealism assumes that there is an Absolute truth in which to base its ideal community - originally Plato's The Republic, and currently identified as utopia or a restored Golden Age from the past. Truth is acquired through knowledge derived from reason. Rational laws are primary in the establishment of this doctrine because it claims that the world is derived solely from ideas, and that these ideas are the only real and good - Agathon (Ryn). Thus, objects or materials are only the embodiment of ideas. Confinement from the material world consequentially moves idealists to liberate the self from worldly matters and seek the ideal community in which it originally belongs. Because ideas are said to be distinct from physical objects in such that they can only be thought of, they can stand the trial of time and remain to be the same despite bodily changes. For this reason, idealists are said to be ahistorical in the sense that their claim of knowledge need not be seen, heard, tasted or felt, and therefore have not or cannot exist on this earth. Sad indeed, but unlike the contemporary idealists such as the conservative and liberal idealists, classical idealism posits a pronounced difference and immutability of the physical and the ideal realm in such a way that they cannot exist together. It is also for this reason, and the nature of ideas in opposition to that of the materials, that reason is used in its contemplation. It also follows that rational principles and ideas, being ahistorical in nature, cannot manifest itself explicitly in this world despite its universality. Ontologically, idealism does not take extreme positions. Although there is great emphasis on the classification of human beings in terms of their skill, and there is much stress on the inevitable influence of the Absolute Truth, so that determinism appears very much a characteristic of the ideal world, the acknowledgment of the huge gap between the actual and the ideal, and the rationale behind The Republic, nevertheless imposes an element of choice among individuals, particularly those of capable to be philosopher-kings to do so and pursue what is Good and True. Indeed, Socrates said, "In heaven, there is laid up a pattern of [the ideal city], I think, which he who desires may behold, and beholding, may set his own house in order" (ABD). However, whether the choices are real or not is not very well established among the idealists - "But whether such an one exists, or ever will exist in fact, is no matter" (ABD). It seems that such matters are neglected, forgotten, or just not important. In motion theory however, it is quite clear that humans, even philosophers, are quite passive in their approach. From the words of Socrates, "It won't be surprising if those who get so far are unwilling to involve themselves in human affairs," because the philosopher " is unwilling to start work on an individual or a city, or draw out laws, until they are given or have made themselves, a clean canvas." Ryn interprets this as the "moral" excuse of the idealists from not participating with worldly affairs, despite Eric Voegelin's judgment that "The philosopher who is in possession of the Truth should consistently go the way of Plato in the Republic; he should issue the call for repentance and submission to the theocratic rule of the incarnate Truth." However influential the critique of Ryn may be for classical idealism, contemporary idealism may not be so affected by it, considering its evolved approach to politics. And yet, despite the prevalence of passivity in classical idealism, the emphasis on individuality substantiates that humans are best characterized in terms of traits than states, that is, although philosophers do not concern themselves with the "affairs of men", the traits in which the philosophers possess extend beyond the state of the society in which he lives, so that "his eyes are turned to contemplate fixed and immutable realities [] which he assimilates himself as far as he can." Axiologically, idealism places high regard on ideas, knowledge and the Truth and characterizes them as pure and good. In this respect, ideas are pursued for its own sake, and reasoning is used as a method not just instrumental for reaching the ideas, but innately good and pure. Furthermore, the question whether it is value-neutral, value-conscious, or value-laden is not very explicit in classical idealism because it can be all. Looking at classical idealism in itself, particularly in terms of its ideal community and the relationship fostered within, it is value-neutral, because the city is characterized with affection being shared by everyone, where affection is evenly distributed and familial relationship is not prioritized. However, inspecting the structure of the ideal community, idealism is both value-conscious and value-laden, such that the people in the community, especially philosophers, must be aware of the smooth flow of moral values in the city, and maintain it. Thus, it is apparent from Plato's prescription that the ideal community is made of a hierarchy in which the philosophers are prioritized over the stomach-yearning lower class. While not diametrically opposite, metatheoretical assumptions of realism is very much distinguishable from idealism, provided that the analysis considers the inter-relatedness of the assumptions. Epistemologically, realistic truth can be both absolute and relative. Absolute realistic thoughts came from concrete natural laws and principles, scientific pursuits like biology, chemistry and physics. This is because realism contends that the ideas must adhere to what it here materially (MIA: Encyclopedia of Marxism: Glossary of Terms), not the other way. Despite the apparent contradiction between realism and idealism, realism maintains that ideas are existent, but it also maintains that it does so because of the materials from which it was derived. Therefore, unlike classical idealism, knowledge and truth is manifest and explicit. Indeed, if idealism pursues logical deduction, realism primarily uses the method of induction. But this does not prevent realists from using the method of deduction. Because of this, realism has a bigger advantage over idealism in convincing the truthfulness of their knowledge. They have at their expense the power both of reason and experience (Martin; Morgenthau). Marx said, "Truth is known through practice." Nevertheless, relative truths are also present in realism. Just as knowledge is primarily derived from experience, and that various experiences are a product of the changing material world, then knowledge can and do change. Social Darwinism, which explains the social and political world as the struggle for survival where the best fit ends victorious (Moseley), for instance, implies the necessity for an inevitable changing world. In this case, if the world changes, so as the knowledge derived from it. Ontologically, realism is action-oriented. It doesn't concern itself much with the metaphysical and in all of its dealings, never questioned that man inherently has free will. However, considered deeply, the concept of power, national interest and the anarchical nature of international relations, instills deterministic tendencies. This is because of the prescriptive nature of realism (Moseley). Political realism goes beyond describing the state of affairs among nations; it actually prescribes that nations are and must pursue national interest and use power to do so, because the international world is anarchical (Lauletta; Martin; and Moseley). Realism places much emphasis on the nation as the agent to achieve national interests and undermine the role of the individual in its pursuit. In consequence, national boundaries restrain individuals from seeking out greener pastures and prescribes that they, too, have the moral obligation to serve the state in order "to preserve their political autonomy and their territorial integrity" (Lauletta). Therefore, in action theory, statesmen choose, decide and act in accordance to power and interests, which Morgenthau claims to be objective laws rooted in human nature. Because of these, humans are ought to be characterized in terms of the social situations in which they are placed. After all, characterizing humans in terms of traits, which can only be the degree to which they use power and the degree to which they analyze political actions as benefiting the common good, basically distorts the idea of realism. Human actions, albeit not passive, is reactive to the social situations in which he is placed, and only from this context can power play and interest advancement can operate; again, the idea of Social Darwinism (Moseley). Axiologically, moral values are seen to be instrumental. "Political realism is aware of the moral significance of political action. It is also aware of the ineluctable tension between the moral command and the requirements of successful political action" (Morgenthau). Because of this, "universal moral principles cannot be applied to the actions of states in their abstract universal formulation, but that they must be filtered through the concrete circumstances of time and place" (Morgenthau). Therefore, whatever the social condition calls for, values must be flexible enough to fit into it. The nature of how realism describes society and prescribes social action answers the question whether it is value-neutral, value-conscious, and value-laden. Realistic values stem from interests, whether domestically or internationally, and realists must be aware of them in order to advance them. And yet, the description of the international world as primarily anarchical, that is, "without a world government that oversees, controls and has authority over all" (Martin), states are in themselves value-neutral. Thus, in order to exist together in this world, states must protect their national interest, and at the same time, acknowledge that other states are also protecting their own. Thus, from the discussion of moral values, Hans J. Morgenthau explains, "[] it is exactly the concept of interest defined in terms of power that saves us from both that moral excess and that political folly. For if we look at all nations, our own included, as political entities pursuing their respective interests defined in terms of power, we are able to do justice to all of them. And we are able to do justice to all of them in a dual sense: We are able to judge other nations as we judge our own and, having judged them in this fashion, we are then capable of pursuing policies that respect the interests of other nations, while protecting and promoting those of our own." Idealistic and realistic philosophies have strikingly influenced today's thought and way of thinking. They are reflected on human tendency to value universal morality, the tendency to interpret politicians acting in terms of self-serving intentions, and the constitutionally prescribed split of the Church and the State affairs. Valuing universal morality comes from idealistic perspective in which moral principles and laws are claimed to be abstract and ahistorical, unlike the relative value imposed on it by realism. Interpreting political actors as self-serving and power-seeking individuals stem from the problem of ideally criticizing the fundamental doctrine of realism. Because of the greater emphasis of idealists on individuals and the belief that nations are reducible to an individual human being in terms of its operation (Ryn), it is also possible that national interests can be likened to individual interests, in which individuals can choose to go against the nation's interest when it undermines its own personal wishes. The split of the Church and the State, however, have a long history. From idealism, Church spirituality in the light of faith and the significant role of God, states that the necessary abstraction and transcendentalism is incompatible with worldly affairs (Ryn). Claes Ryn further cited Dante in distinguishing the task of the "supreme pontiff" from the "emperor" that the former leads men to "life eternal" and the latter is concerned with "temporal happiness". From realism, however, the value placed on justifying the existence of one though with another (Morgenthau) serves to let the nation operate in a state of harmony with the Church. Realistically speaking, the contemporary world calls for innumerable lines of reformation and change for progress and global development. These values are so pervasive that it is almost impossible to neglect by the politically active individual and the apathetic but nevertheless affected lives. No matter how indifferent humans can be, rational examination of the state of affairs nowadays reveals a lot of social problems that humans themselves, by virtue of the Constitution and its rationale, placed on the hands of the statesmen and the politicians. Tempting as it may be, realism assures a forward approach into solving this world's social problems; however, idealistic values proved to be effective in instilling sense of nobility among humans and providing meaning one's actions, whether political, economic, and academic, that must not be taken for granted. After contemplating and considering the fundamental principles and assumptions behind these doctrines, it is at best desirable to pursue a balanced view from these extreme propositions. I recommend the use and the combination of the significant elements among the two philosophical approaches to strengthen their applicability in solving today's problems and to minimize their weaknesses and limitations. Because realism combines the use of rational principles and empirical facts, it has more grounds and therefore best suited in describing precisely the current state of affairs. Because idealism hopes for a better future and manifests its power through influencing individuals to rise up and pursue for what is universally and absolutely pure and good in domains other than politics, these intellectually oriented people have big contributions to make in the society, no matter what classical idealism says or seems to say, and thus, they are huge investments for the smooth operation of the community, ideal or not. Knowledge gathered from this extreme form of rationalism can only be put into practice and in concrete terms by realistic philosophy. And finally, the concrete actions taken by the realists can and are best evaluated by the idealists in terms of how they accurately capture the picture of the ideal community, whether that which is prescribed by The Republic or not. Works Cited ABD. "The Sword of Political Idealism I". Word Press. 02 February 2006. 22 November 2007 . Hutchison, Fred. "Idealism in Political, Philosophical, and Theological Dress." Renew America. 02 December 2004. 22 November 2007 . Lauletta, Mike. "Political Realism". Towson.edu. May 1996. 22 November 2007 . Martin, Jason A. "Political Realism." JasonMartin.com. 03 February 2006. 22 November 2007 . Morgenthau, Hans J. Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. Fifth Edition, Revised. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978, pp. 4-15. Moseley, Alexander. "Political Realism". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2006. 22 November 2007 . Ryn, Claes G. "The Politics of Transcendence: The Pretentious Passivity of Platonic Idealism". National Humanities Institute. Humanitas 1999. 22 November 2007 . "Idealism." MIA: Encyclopedia of Marxism: Glossary of Terms. 22 November 2007 . "Perspectives and Metatheoretical Assumptions." Honors: Communication Capstone Communication Resources. 22 November 2007 . I. Introduction: Idealism and Realism in their fundamental sense a. Idealism and Realism as approaches in philosophical inquiry b. Definition and Basic Concepts i. Idealism - Idea, types (Subjective and Objective) and methodologies ii. Realism - Material or the real world c. Application or Impact in the World i. Idealism in political, philosophical and theological dress ii. Political realism and its operation in international relations d. Aims of the paper i. To critically examine the positions of idealism and realism in the different metatheoretical assumptions - epistemological, ontological, and axiological ii. To assess the implications and consequences of their positions in worldly affairs iii. To evaluate their relative application in the political arena II. Body: a. Introduction of the different metatheoretical assumptions i. Epistemological 1. Concern with absolute Truth and relative truths 2. Questions about confirming knowledge as true 3. Questions of the method of acquiring knowledge and truth 4. Concern over how the truth manifests itself ii. Ontological 1. Concern with the human nature and our actions 2. Consequential concern over the nature of reality in which human beings are part of and where they move and act 3. Concern over how the nature of reality affects us and/or how we influence the conduct of reality a. Motion theory - passivity/reactivity b. Action theory - intentions/choices 4. Concern over how humans are or ought to be characterized a. States - situational, depends upon the situation b. Traits - intrinsic, independent of the situation iii. Axiological 1. Concern over the role of the values prescribed a. For its own sake b. For other greater values - objective / instrumental 2. Question over being value-neutral, value-conscious, and value-laden b. Metatheoretical Assumptions of Idealism c. Metatheoretical Assumptions of Realism III. Conclusion: a. Implications and Consequences of Idealistic and Realistic Positions i. Tendency to value universal morality ii. Tendency to interpret political actions in terms of self-serving intentions iii. Split of the Church and the State affairs b. Assessment of the value of each position in terms of their applicability in today's world i. Realistic - more grounds in describing precisely the current state of affairs ii. Idealistic - individual pursuit of the prescribed structure of the political affairs, a hope for a better future iii. Realistic - putting the hope into concrete actions iv. Idealistic - evaluation of the political actions in terms of the ideal state v. Symbiotic relationship of the two Read More