Application of Jacques Lacan's Theories - Research Paper Example

Table of contents Introduction. Structuralist movement and Lacans role in the structural psychoanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p.3 1. The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis by Jacques Lacan. . . . . . . . p.4 2. Actuality and Lacans ideas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p.6 2.1 modern advertisement technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p.7 2.2 techno music (non-comercial). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p.7 2.3 uncanny in horror films. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p.9 Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction. Structuralist movement and Lacans role in the structural psychoanalysis The end of XIX and the beginning of XX centuries were the time of natural sciences reign. The growing attention to the human nature, thoughts, society was the distinctive feature of the time as well as the structural method in science. As the encyclopedias define, "Structuralism is an approach in academic disciplines that explores the relationships between fundamental elements of some kind, upon which some higher mental, linguistic, social, cultural etc. "structures" are built, through which then meaning is produced within a particular person, system, or culture" (Wikipedia) The origin of the Structuralist movement lies in the work of Ferdinand de Saussure concerning the general linguistics, the apellation has come from the works of a French anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss. This movement took place mostly in France and gathered such bright and original thinkers as Lacan, Foucault, Althusser, Poulantzas and others. This movement had more an ideological than an organisational nature because all of its participants had a particular individuality and independent way in science, so, they denied their affiliation to the Structuralism. Jacques-Marie Emile Lacan took up the study of medicine in 1920 and specialised in psychiatry from 1926. He undertook his own analysis around this time with Rudolph Loewenstein and this continued until 1938. Lacan was very active in the world of Parisian writers, artists and intellectuals of the time: he was a friend of Andr Breton, Salvador Dal and Pablo Picasso, and attended the mouvement Psych founded by Maryse Choisy. Several of his articles were published in the Surrealist journal Minotaure and he was present at the first public reading of James Joyce's Ulysses. In his studies he had a particular interest in the philosophic work of Karl Jaspers and Martin Heidegger and, alongside many other Parisian intellectuals of the time, he also attended the famous seminars on Hegel given by Alexandre Kojve. France had not proved the most favourable testing-ground for Freud's theories. In 1907 Freud wrote to Jung of the difficulties the psychoanalytic movement had in making any headway there. He put this down to the national character, observing that 'it has always been hard to import things into France. The difficulty experienced by psychoanalysis was greatly increased by the fact that it was simultaneously perceived as Teutonic and Jewish, and was thus subject both to anti-German and to anti-semitic prejudice which were strong in French intellectual circles. It was in this atmosphere that Jacques Lacan developed his own theoretical system. Given the strength of the prevailing cultural chauvinism it is perhaps not surprising that Lacan should have begun by importing into psychoanalysis concepts which had been formulated in a completely different framework and whose originator neither intended nor imagined that they would eventually be married to the theories of Freud. Lacan presented his first analytic paper on the 'Mirror Phase' at the 1936 Congress of the International Psychoanalytical Association in Marienbad. He was called up to serve in the French army after the German occupation of France and was posted to the Val-de-Grce military hospital in Paris. After the end of the war Lacan visited England for a five week study trip, meeting English analysts Wilfred Bion and John Rickman. He was much influenced by Bion's analytic work with groups and this contributed to his own later emphasis on study groups (in France, cartels) as a structure with which to advance theoretical work in psychoanalysis. In 1951 Lacan started to hold a weekly seminar at the St-Anne Hospital Paris, urging what he described as 'a return to Freud' and, in particular, to Freud's concentration upon the linguistic nature of psychological symptomatology. Very influential in Parisian cultural life as well as in psychoanalytic theory and clinical practice, the seminars drew large crowds and continued for nearly thirty years. Many students of Lacan became important psychoanalysts and wrote influential contributions to philosophy and other fields. Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Louis Althusser, Jacques-Alain Miller, Luce Irigaray, Jean Laplanche, and even Claude Levi-Strauss, for example, all attended Lacan's seminars at some point. Lacan continued to deliver his public exposition of analytic theory and practice for the next seventeen years. 1. The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis by Jacques Lacan Due to a difficult situation in the ground of Freuds disciples, Jacques Lacan had taken the position apart of all this psychoanalytical world and taught students of the Ecole Normale in Paris. At the same time he was reading the seminars of the psychoanalytical methods, attracting a lot of thinkers and forming his own school. His first seminar in 1964 was later published in English as The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis, translated by Alan Sheridan. After the complete analysis of this work it becomes possible to define: the four fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis for Lacan are the Unconscious, the Drive, the Resistance, and the Repetition. But however, it is not the main and most precious in the books content. The Lacans contribution in the psychoanalysis is in his absolutely original interpretation of Freuds ideas (more clearly explained in his "Return to Freud") and a number of his own discoveries. Meanwhile, it is necessary to say some words about the language of Lacan. All of his explorers agree his complex and opaque character. "Lacan's style is daunting. He argues not through clinical evidence and close reasoning but through playful, gnomic remarks, poetic metaphor, tossing out provocative theses and often leaving the links between ideas obscure Lacan's text is to read as both intellectual discourse and poem, and look at some of his rhetorical devices and characteristic words and metaphors".(Gordon Andrew M., Trouble in River City) This has created a field day for his adherents, who are forced to interpret his remarks not so much as intellectual discourse but rather as poetry; thus all the arguments between Lacanians as to what he truly meant. Some of his explorers name it even "a sadistic relationship to his readers". The text abounds in quotations in several languages, strange quotations from Freud in German, references to the linguistics of Jakobson and Saussure, and allusions to a wide variety of world literature, including Leonardo da Vinci, Swift, Victor Hugo, Paul Valery, St. Augustine, the Bible and Kierkegaard, among others. Except this, he operates formulae, diagrams and other attributes of mathematics. One of his auditors describes the effect his text was producing on the present persons: "There was a matheme of perversion, a matheme of phobia, a matheme of the mytheme....Equations, ratios, arrows, diagrams of knots and Venn diagrams covered the blackboard....While some members of the audience were enthusiastic, other felt guilty at understanding nothing or very little of something that, as one of them put it, 'everyone important seems to feel is so crucial" (Turkle, Psychoanalytic Politics) Even Alan Sheridan, Lacans translator, remarks: "Lacan doesn't intend to be easily understood He designs his seminars so that you can't, in fact, grasp them.' I am by no means alone in coming to the conclusion that - to quote one psychoanalytic writer , 'behind the smoke-screen there is nothing of substance" (Kevin Brownlow. Structuralist theology). But, if one ignores the extremely difficult and luscious Lacans style, it becomes clear that Lacan is not simply "an amusing sharlatan" as Chomsky had called him. First, Lacan proposes some serious theories. Lacan rejected attempts to link psychoanalysis with social theory, saying 'the unconscious is the discourse of the Other' -- that human passion is structured by the desire of others and that we express deep feelings through the 'relay' of others. He thus saw desire as a social phenomenon and psychoanalysis as a theory of how the human subject is created through social interaction. Desire appears through a combination of language, culture and the spaces between people. Lacan focused largely on Freud's work on deep structures and infant sexuality, and how the human subject becomes an 'other' through unconscious repression and stemming from the Mirror phase. The conscious ego and unconscious desire are thus radically divided. Lacan considered this perpetual and unconscious fragmentation of the self as Freud's core discovery. Lacan thus sought to return psychoanalysis on the unconscious, using Ferdinand de Saussure's linguistics, structural anthropology and post-structural theories. Lacanian psychoanalysis is rather ruthless in its aggressive challenging that seeks to dismantle the imaginary sense of completeness (as in the Mirror phase) and to remove illusions of self-mastery through a mirror image. A strong ego is seen as defensive deceit and expressing it during analysis is seen as resistance to change. Fear of disintegration and lack drives the person to realize themselves in another imaginary individual. Lacan would cope with transference by suddenly terminating the session. The Oedipus crisis precipitates the child into the symbolic stage, from which they can become a speaking subject. It is not just the father, but language that creates the division. Language is used to represent desire and is an 'intersubjective order of symbolization' and force that perpetuates the 'Law of the father'. The father prohibits the desire of the mother, subverting this desire into language. A major contribution that Lacan brought in his Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis was in the emphasis of language in the creation of the self and psychic and sexual life. In his Post-Freudian interpretation of Oedipal and other early infant sexuality, Lacan saw the female position as being non-essential, a view that was taken up by feminists. The premise of the father ripping the infant from the innocent mother, seducing it into the symbolic order, supported feminist indignation. Lacan says that the unconscious is inserted into the symbolic order from the 'outside' and is 'structured like a language', operating according to differential relationships in language. It thus does not 'belong' to the individual and is an effect of signification on the subject. He is in opposition to American psychologists who see the ego at being central. Lacan puts the subjective 'self' at the center, where it is alienated from its own history, formed in and through otherness, and is inserted into an external symbolic network. 'I' is a fiction borne of a misrecognition that masks a fractured and unconscious desire for reunification that permeates adult life. There is thus always a gap between the 'I' of the subject position (into which people are forced by ideology and culture) and the 'me' of the subject who speaks. This leads to endless futile attempts to stitch oneself into language in an imagined position where the self can be spoken. This anti-essentialist account avoids Althusser's functionalist position. Meaning is created as a part of the signifying chain of language in the impact of the Other on the self, rather than being signified. Except the innovation in the psychoanalysis directly, Lacans ideas makes a revolution in the philosophical sense: Lacan cardinally changes the sense of notion "the subject". If the simple Cartesian tradition explains subject as the substantial entity and the consciousness bearer, the reference point in the culture, Lacan changes this vision. After him, subject is only the function of the culture, the point of intersection of different symbolical structures and the point of application of the Unconscious forces. It is not the culture that is the individuums attribute, but the individuum is the attribute of the culture. 2. Actuality and Lacans ideas All the Lacan ideas are closely associated with the language. According to Freud, such phenomena as symptoms, dreams, daydreams, jokes, and slips of the tongue can lead us to unconscious material. According to Lacan, "the Unconscious is structured like language", and also "the Unconscious is the discourse of the Other". So, the discourse analysis, the linguistic component got a priority in Lacans school. As desire and connection is created through language, Lacan explains this through Saussure's signifier and signified, which are seen not as referring to objects but to psychic representations created by their interplay and by culture and history. Within language, the subject vainly tries to represent itself. The subject is an effect of the signifier, put into language. Language becomes a mask to disguise the impossibility of desire. The unconscious is less something inside the person as an 'intersubjective' space between people. Lacan sees the child not as the agent of symbolization but as the recipient of desire from an Other (most often, the Mother). When the child play with things disappearing and finding them again, they are recreating the missing mother. There are no sexual relations: there is just the individual's relation to the Law and to language, which allow for the continuance of social relationships. Lacanian psychoanalysis thus focuses on deconstructing the narcissistic illusions of the self, allowing the childhood fragmentation and lack of unity of the self to resurface. So, as the language plays the prior role in works of Lacan, his ideas have a huge range of applications. Most interesting is to look at them in the modern world. Modern advertisement technologies One of the interesting applications of Lacans ideas we can see every day on our TV screens, during the advertisement sessions. The concept of "an active advertisement" appeared in 1980s with an American advertising campaign for the Virginia slims where the slogan was "Youve got a long way, baby!" and the heroine was positioned as an active woman working and acting in the society so successfully as a man. May be the most known slogan of an active advertisement is the one of the Nikes campaign: "Just do it!" According to the employees of the American agency Weiden and Kennedy, created this slogan, it calls to be active still being very personal. So, it has a different sense for different people. (Nike. Annual Meeting f Shareholders) Other slogans develop this idea and prove that the active advertisement has a large presence on the TV: "Just be" by Calvin Klein, "Image is nothing, thirst is everything" by Sprite, "Play in the team of PEPSI" by Pepsi-Cola; "Look deeper" (by vodkas brand Golden Moscow) and "Relax!" (by Ochakovo) for Russian audience. In the active advertisement the active role of woman becomes very important. And here the specialists recourse to some Lacans ideas. Lacan differs the notions of "look" and "gaze". The gaze is passive, then a gazing person becomes an object. The look (technically - the direct look into eyes) is active, it comes inside the personality being under the look. The recipient of the look, real or imaginary, gets a relationship with the looking person, and becomes his or her stain. In the advertising spot the heroes, and especially heroines, being absolutely imaginary creatures, play the role of our stain when they are in active dialog with us looking directly into our eyes and using the imperative for us. Using such a hero-stain, the advertisement producers are controlling and operating our attention (where and at what we do look) and, as the consequence, they are operating our desire. The other use of this difference of look and gaze discovered by Lacan, may be found on the World War II posters. For Russian audience the best known of them is the one where the woman (Mother) asks if you signed up in the Volunteer army. Techno music (non-commercial) We using here the limitation of "non-commercial" because nowadays the commercial music does not even include the notion of self-expression in its semantic field, being absolutely oriented to the simplification and mass preferences. Somehow it happens from time to time that a non-commercial, underground project reaches a great popularity because of the force of self-expression, and its dissimilitude to the rest of the musical scene. This had place with the whole music and cultural movement, rave and techno culture. The Lacanian analysis of this phenomenon may discover some interesting regularities. As B. Herzogenrath (B. Herzogenrath. Techno and Mysticism) fairly remarks, it is "a style even less associated with 'natural' instruments like guitar, bass and drum-set, but with segments of the frequency spectrum on the monitor of the analyzer; not with real time and live-performance, but with a step-by-step stratification of rhythms, samples, digital filters and delay effects", a style that has its roots in Chicago '(Ware)House' style and Detroit DJ culture, that takes machines (records, turn-tables, computers) and uses them not the way they where supposed to be used, thus introducing techniques of ab-use (scratching, sampling etc.) - a point where the two different strands of music momentarily touch, since even Punk and Heavy Metal use distorted sounds, sounds, in which the effect of (formerly unwanted) noise was in fact taken as a definiens of Rock 'n' Roll. In Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud describes his observations of his grandson's self-invented game: "What he did was to hold [a wooden reel] by the string and very skillfully throw it over the edge of his curtained cot, so that it disappeared into it, at the same time uttering his expressive 'o-o-o-o'. He then pulled the reel out of the cot again by the string and hailed its reappearance with a joyful 'da' ['there']. This, then, was the complete game - disappearance and return. As a rule one only witnessed its first act, which was repeated untiringly as a game in itself ... " Lacan stresses the fact that in the so-called fort/da-game a rudimentary use of language - a first phonematic opposition - is implicated. For the speaking subject - being constituted by this 'original' digitality [fort/da, 0/I) and inscribed into a trans-subjective (rather than inter-subjective) system - an outside of digitality is impossible. It might be argued that there is something in the human subject that is not reducible to pure digitality: its indestructible drive (for a presymbolic state). Lacan highlights the "immortal ... irrepressible life" (Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts) of the drive energy in his myth of the lamella. The lamella is thus the human being as pre-sexual, pre-subject substance, of a "life that has no need of no organ" Lacan gives a very vivid image of it: "The lamella is something extra-flat, which moves like the amoeba. ... And it can run around. Well! This is not very reassuring. But suppose it comes and envelopes your face while you are quietly asleep ..." This illustration of the lamella reads like a perfect description of the cover of The Prodigy's Music For The Jilted Generation. It depicts this very balanced moment when the extra-flat lamella gives way to the clear-cut physiognomy of the subject, the (symbolic) 'body with organs,' when the unspeakable gives way to and disappears in articulation. The drive itself, as a machine good for nothing (like the objects of Yves Tanguy), is described by Lacan in terms of a surrealist collage: "the working of a dynamo connected up to a gas-tap, a peacock's feather emerges, and tickles the belly of a pretty woman, who is just lying there looking beautiful" (Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts) and stops making sense. This visual image can be related - via the dadaist sound-collage - to the sampling technique of Techno and Acid House music. Techno, in its decidedly a-political self-fashioning, thus nevertheless takes part in subversion. Not a subversion as decidedly against The Law, against its mode of communication, but by forcing signification against itself, by foregrounding the signifier against the signified. In Techno "you can hear a multitude of noises, shrieks, chirps, creaks, and whizzes. These are all sounds traditionally associated with madness. ... Techno in this sense is schizoid music: it deconstructs certain rules and forms that pop-music has inflicted on sounds, on the other hand it has to invent the rules that subject sounds to operations of consistency." (Techno. Hrsg. Philipp Anz/Patrick Walder) By thus concentrating on the unreasonable sounds beyond meaning, in Techno the polymorphous drive reacts against repressive, phallic desire, pre-oedipal childhood - and this is exactly how want the term 'childhood' to be understood in the following: as the pre-oedipal realm of unrestricted freedom and bodily pleasure - opposes against post-oedipal adult-hood: the pure Techno/tekhne-machine of "the horns of Jericho" (The Prodigy: 'Jericho'). It is thus a 'Rage against the machine' not from the (however illusory) position of an non-machinic other, but a 'Rage of the (pure) machine against the (oedipal) machine,' a "rage against the Symbolic." (Kristeva, Julia. Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection) As the researcher find, "the concepts of cyberspace celebrate the sovereignity of childhood without the body - the death of the body is in fact the price to re-visit paradise - Techno celebrates 'Judgement Night' as the re-surrection of the body, it puts the body back into its place. A place neither determined by biological parameters, that is: by the real, but by symbolic parameters". (B. Herzogenrath. Techno and Mysticism) It goes a step further than the Lacanian definition of the subject being a signifier representing a subject for another signifier. In analogy to Felix Guattari's re-definition of the Lacanian object a as a "object machine petit 'a," (Guattari, Felix. Molecular Revolution) the subject is constituted in "a pure signifying space where the machine would represent the subject for another machine". As the Lacanian object a is a fragment of the real (body), that 'pound of flesh' exchanged for the signifier, in a Techno rave the body as a whole is - not replaced - but affected by the machinic: Techno thus transforms the whole body into the "objet-machine petit 'a.' In this "final corporate colonisation of the unconscious," - that unconscious that is both the "secret of the speaking body" and that "engineers, is machinic"- body and machine become one. With respect to Techno, there have been a multitude of references to shamanism, tribalism, modern primitivism and Voodoo-magic. (The Prodigy: 'Voodoo People'). It was Arthur C.Clarke who was quoted to have said that "any advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic." Thus, hackers, cyberpunks, techno artists and other (mis)users of computer technology are the new magicians and mystics of our age, the shamans and Voodoo-priests of technology. In connection with the ravers' use of a drug aptly called Ecstasy, all these references collide in the notion of dance as ritual. Whereas the dancing body has been traditionally seen as a means of natural (self-)expression, in Techno-, Goa- and Trance-Dance, the body moves beyond the pose and the object of the (male) gaze: 'dance' might be defined here as the relation of the body to the machinic. Lacan has called cybernetics the "science of empty places", and Techno raves, as a kind of 'gay cybernetics,' make much use of empty spaces such as industrial sites, warehouses and factories. Jean Baudrillard has argued that the modern city (or its icon: the factory) is no longer "a site for the production and realisation of commodities." It has become "a site of the sign's execution" Thus, it might be no coincidence that just at the moment the factory as such disappears, Techno usurps the empty places with its 'signifier factory,' with a production that is good for nothing. Uncanny in horror films Here well make an observation of such a category as an Uncanny in the films of horror. In 1919, when Freud published "The Uncanny", he referred with this concept to occurrences where the subject comes across an object or event, habitually familiar to the point of utter automatism of perception, and feels this object or event to be strange and intimidating. One phenomenon that is responsible for turning the familiar and habitual into the strange and uncanny is that of repetitive occurrence that imposes itself on the subject time and again. This is the case of the dreamer walking in a small town in Italy, and finding himself, as if against his will, return to a morbid narrow street, empty of people and with figures of women drawn on its window panes. The dreamer is stricken by the anxiety Freud names uncanny when finding himself for the third time in the same street, which he has been striving desperately to detour. This involuntary return, says Freud, is imposed by what attracts and draws the dreamer beyond his conscious displeasure in this frightening and strange street. It is this "other will" that turns the automatic mechanics of walking into something that is neither innocent, nor really against the subject's will. It is therefore the type of occurrence subjects tend to interpret as meaningful, as carrying secret significance for them. Repetition can thus be said to be of a paradoxical nature as it transcends life itself, so to speak; that is, the uncanny feeling elicited by repetition signifies the presence of another drive, beyond the drive to pleasure or the drive to life - the death drive. At the same time it is repetition that gives presence to the repressed drives of the subject, drives which turn out to be the driving force behind the imposition of this recurrence. Freud also explains that ambiguity of repetition and anxiety is due to claiming that these refer to a primary phase when the ego has not yet been differentiated from the external world. (Freud, Sigmund. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works. London: Hogarth, 1953-74, v.2, pp.315-324) It is in this manner that the anxiety that accompanies repetition is linked both with the source of life itself and with the place where movement has absolutely become absent, where death resides. Beyond the pleasure principle, Lacan would later claim, nothing is lacking, the image of lack is unsignifiable. It is for this reason that what brings us closer to the possibility of non-lacking pleasure elicits anxiety, since we, castrated as we are, recoil before such a possibility. It is for this reason, says Freud, that anxiety should be understood as being there "from the beginning", as involving what precedes the energetic cycle of charge and discharge, of pleasure and displeasure. Anxiety hence cannot be integrated into the movement of the energies of life but is rather to be grasped as a real state of being, registered in the subject's body from the moment of birth when the danger of being separated from the mother's body produced the first moment of anxiety. This psychic real state of anxiety recurs later at various moments (facing the threat of castration, the danger of an object loss, or the imposition of the super-ego imperatives), when a similar danger for the subject, that of losing its imaginary unity, is marked by anxiety. The anxiety effectuated by repetition hence does not signify the return of the repressed as Freud claimed in "The Uncanny", but the real thing prior to repression, which cannot be represented yet whose presence can be indicated through the very occurrence of anxiety itself. Lacan will instruct at a later stage that "the metaphor of return to the inanimate (which Freud attaches to every living body) that margin beyond life that language gives to the human being by virtue of the fact that he speaks precisely that in which such a being places in the position of a signifier this body itself". In other words, the Freudian idea of "beyond the pleasure principle" is nothing but a way to point at the dialectic in which language is seized. The repetition of signs/formations is not just a mechanism of language: it appears as that through which the subject "gets a glimpse" so to speak of what lies beyond language/life, and thus incurs anxiety. The return to the inanimate is, so to speak, the return to the pre-language state of the real, to the limit where language stops, yet this is a place of non-being which language can suggest only from the point where the subject is already a speaking subject. Anxiety thus signifies the paradoxical existence of the intimidating and the pleasing in one and the same formation of language, thereby indicating something about the possible function of art, and its modes of expression and figuration. So, basing on the Lacans concept of Real, we can conclude that the effect of the uncanny refers to a psychic event that precedes the distinction between reality and imaginative reality. It uses the modern cinematograph largely showing the Uncanny as fishhooks for the audiences attention. Bibliography 1. Brownlow K. Structuralist theology. - Literary Review, September 1980. 2. Freud, Sigmund. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works. London: Hogarth, 1953-74 3. Gordon Andrew M., Trouble in River City. - IPSA Journal. - 1997. n3. 4. Guattari, Felix. Molecular Revolution. - Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1984. 5. Herzogenrath, B. Techno and Mysticism. - New York: New American Library, 2001. 6. Kristeva, Julia. Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection. Columbia University Press: New York, 1982. 7. Lacan J. Reading Seminar XI, edition by Feldstein, Fink and Jaanus 8. Lacan J. The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis. Ed. Jacques-Alain Miller. Trans. Alan Sheridan. New York: Norton, 1978. 9. Nike. Annual Meeting f Shareholders, September 23, 1998 10. Ronen R. The Uncanny in the contemporary art. - Literary Review, June 1991. 11. Techno. Hrsg. Philipp Anz/Patrick Walder. Zurich: Ricco Bilger, 1995. 12. Turkle, Psychoanalytic Politics. - London,Context, 1995. 13. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Read More