The Media in a Political Campaign and the Adoption of Innovation - Essay Example

Chapter 4 The People's Choice: The Media in a Political Campaign This chapter discussed the 1940 presidential election to study the formation of voting decisions over time and to analyze people's voting behavior (Lowery and DeFleur, 1983). A study was conducted during the timely election period where Franklin D. Roosevelt (Democrat) ran up against Wendell Willkie (Republican) on the presidential race. It was conducted by three researchers (Lazarsfield, Berelson and Gaudet) and was funded by a well-known foundation, an institution and a media personality. The project was designed following a series of innovative research procedures and concepts. Like in every research project, they all started with a question of how and why: how and why people decided to vote as they did. The researchers used a survey sampling method and a panel design technique in which the same samples were observed at different points in time (Lowery and DeFleur, 1983) . Locational parameter was in Erie County in Ohio because it was culturally homogenous with a population of 43,000 being stable for 40 years. The people living in Erie County were all white and the farmers and the industrial labor force were evenly distributed. Thus, this would help in classifying the respondents. It was also relevant that the tri-media were present; 3 newspapers, 2 radio stations and all major network channels were represented. Importantly, Erie County had the record of deviating a little less from national voting pattern as far as the twentieth century was concern. During the study, there were 3,000 sampling respondents, 600 persons each for 4 stratified samples referred to as "panel" and 600 persons each also for the 3 control groups. Panel and control groups were used as there were qualms that the process would greatly affect the results which eventually turned out to be the otherwise. There were several influential factors that could affect voters of Erie County and that included political index, religion, demography, socio-economic status and cross pressures among all others. There were three main patterns of change in cross pressure voting. According to the study, 28% were crystallizers (Lowery and DeFleur, 1983). They changed vote up to the last minute. On the other hand, 15% were waverers. Waverers were those whose decision pattern was like a wave. They started out with a clear decision then during the campaign period slowly changing sides but then later vote on their original choice. Finally, the party changers were self-explanatory and composed 8% of the samples. Cross pressure votes were simply a delay of the final decision of the voter. As such, potential voters whose low interest in the campaign and the cross pressure voters became media campaign targets. The challenge with media-mediated campaign was how to effectively deliver the message that a certain candidate was way far better than the others. The problem also lies on media exposure. How well-spread was the exposure. Surprisingly, radio comprised 50% of those surveyed when asked about the most important source of political information (Lowery and DeFleur, 1983). The media however, was a big contributor in political campaigning through three major patterns of influence; activation (awareness), reinforcement (continuing justification) and conversion (switch sides through persuasion). The two-step flow of communication stated that ideas and arguments would from the media to the opinion leaders then finally to the less active portions of the population. It was emphasized in this chapter the importance of mass media in influencing the voting behavior of the people. There maybe other factors that can affect any individual's vote but media-mediated campaign can greatly affect voter's decision up to the last second of the election period. Therefore, with all these political propaganda and strategy using mass media, Franklin D. Roosevelt won the political race. Chapter 5 Audiences for Daytime Radio Serials: Uses and Gratifications In the late 1930's, America had already been tagged as "media society. Radio seemed the most common appliance in every home. It was also in this decade that mass communication became a discipline. A followed through that a study was being conducted with 2 purposes; first, "was to study what radio means in the lives of the listeners" and second, was to compare listeners to the radio serials with non-listeners. There were 4 types of group of respondents and the results were compiled into a single report; nationwide (4,991 non-farm women), Iowa (5,325 women cross-section), Erie County (1,500 women) and random interviews with the women in Syracause, Memphis and Minneapolis (Lowery and DeFleur, 1983). Among these respondents, 47.9% were listeners, 5.1% were occasional listeners and 47% were non-listeners. Several hypotheses were formed based on accumulation theory which assumed that the process of media serial influence was adding up of minimal effects. The study also formulated theories that compared the regular listeners with the non-listeners. The results showed that the regular listeners were not socially isolated as far as the theory and statistics were concerned. Avid listeners have lower level of intellectual interests in terms of education and reading preferences as well. It did not actually prove the difference in personality profile between the regular listener and non-listener. Albeit statistics could not show any evidence that the regular listeners had less concerns in public affairs, still they have the same degree in failing to carry out their interests into action. Moreover, majority of the respondents really preferred daytime (even nighttime) radio serials for listening. The study also discussed the uses of information received by listening serials and the gratification it could provide. Three types of uses and gratification were stated; emotional release, wishful thinking and valuable advice. However, the last one (valuable advice) was given emphasis among the three. Respondents with lower educational attainment were more likely to admit that the programs of the radio serials had been helpful in terms of information trafficking (Lowery and DeFleur, 1983). And those who worried more often found relief even only through listening to the serials. However, uses and gratification approach also have implications and criticisms. Implications of this approach were sometimes the communicator's concerns as these may have an impact on his/her media and message. Furthermore, some argued that uses and gratification format was just a data collecting strategy; it was not theoretical such that key concepts were defined indistinctively. Some also argued about the audiences' complexities; each could have their own purposes; each had their own demands, initiatives and choices. Uses and gratification approach still remained today an important viewpoint in studying viewers' behaviors. This approach brought up to the idea that media could be a driving force of positive social change and action. With this, the study was inclined to answer further questions as it went on to deeper thought about media's role in the society. Three different theories were created; mirror approach, null effect approach and tradition Marxist concept. The mirror approach described that media should provide truthful and factual information. It should portray what was actually happening in the society to tap public awareness. The null effect approach, on the other hand, suggested little or no distortion in reflecting reality. This reality should be seen as the result of concession between the buyer and the seller of information. Lastly, the tradition Marxist strongly advised the media to reinforce the highest level of social norms and values that existed in the social system. Chapter 6 The Iowa Study of Hybrid Seed Corn: The Adoption of Innovation The Industrial Revolution triggered thousands of new innovations. Because of an increase in literacy, people became less guided with tradition and more dependent on mass media for new products and ideas. In 1939, 75% of Iowa farmers were already using hybrid seed but no one identified as to the details of their switch to new seed. After the World War II when American agricultural technology rose rapidly, productivity dramatically increased. However, it was found out that not all famers were able to adopt these new innovations and technologies (Lowery and DeFleur, 1983). This again called for a research project as to the role of media in delivering the innovation into the farmer's attention. Other subjects in relation to the adoption of innovation were also discussed. The study took place in Iowa State University by Bryce Ryan and Neal Gross and was published in 1943 and they interviewed 259 farmers near Ames, Iowa. Major findings turned out to be not the way they were presumed. It was found out that salesmen were the most frequent initial source of new innovations but the influence declined fast. The neighbors increased their influence all throughout when the new seed was actually implemented. Mass media helped in bringing the new seed to the farmer's attention but did not play essentially as to the adoption of the new seed compared to interpersonal contacts with the neighbors. There was an average gap of 5-6 years between the first learning and the decision to adopt. The time and degree of interpersonal and media sources as information pipeline was very multifaceted. Two channels of information identified in this study; mass media channel and interpersonal channel. The former could reach larger audience rapidly. It could provide knowledge and was essential to first-hand information about a certain innovation. Meanwhile, the latter was just a two-way exchange and yet essential to either adoption or rejection of an innovation. The adoption was no longer illustrated as a pattern but a process instead. There were 5 major stages in the adoption process; awareness (1st stage), interest (2nd stage), evaluation (3rd stage), trial (4th stage) and adoption (5th stage). The study also categorized 4 types of adopters. First type was the early acceptors. They were the true innovators. They tried the new seed where no else dared yet. Second were the early adopters who used the new seed after witnessing the early acceptors. They were slightly large in numbers . Third were the majority who adopted the new seed. Lastly, the fourth type was last acceptors. These were those who did not apply the innovation until the vast majority was already using it. Diffusion was defined as a process by which an innovation was channeled through over time among the members of the social system. Innovation was first adopted by a few innovators who influenced others to adopt it. Interaction or interpersonal contacts could be very important in the diffusion process. Time lag existed in the adoption of innovation. As mass media information increased its way into the social system, it was observed that the information reached people with higher socio-economic status faster than with the lower brackets. The knowledge gap widened at a faster rate as well between the two social classes. It may be inferred that although new innovations came out into public, the knowledge gap hypothesis may hinder the adoption of innovation to the intended recipient. Chapter 7 Experiments with Film: Persuading the American Solider in World War II The world was at war the second time around. Fascism rose in Italy and Germany. The Japanese attacked the Pearl Harbor. From U.S. point of view, war was the highest possible justification. Thus, Americans needed more military personnel out in the battlefield. In effect, they turned their young male civilians into soldiers. They trained them with military training as well as prepared them psychologically about what was ahead when they were already at the war zones. Since the new recruits had little knowledge about the 2 world wars, the American government educated them by using training films. In early, a high-ranking official, specifically a general, sought assistance from the Hollywood to prepare war films. Several films were made but only 4 were used in the study. Other experiments studied the cumulative impact of two or more films but The Battle of Britain movie evaluated the impact of a single film. This movie put emphasis on the feeling of confidence in American-allied countries. The research assumed that the films would be an effective tool in teaching factual knowledge and such would immediately create interpretations and opinions to accept the military job. There were a total of 4,200 subjects using films as stimulus together checklist questionnaire, fact-quiz questions and opinion questions. It was done after 1 week but one segment of the subjects was measured after 9 weeks. Initial findings indicated that the films were effective on giving factual knowledge. There may be effect on opinions and interpretations but made little difference only. However, the film had no effect in relation to the purpose of motivating the subjects to serve as soldiers. Why Because the subjects were already informed by the civilian mass media and the motivation to serve and fight in the army was a very complex human dimension. Thus, subsequent questions were being drawn to conclusions. The subjects were asked about their opinion of the film. Most of the subjects preferred highly realistic material. But motion pictures did not have significant advantage over filmstrip production. It would help enhance learning effect should there be supplemental oral presentation either before or after the film showing. The effects on opinion change increased with higher intellect but relative on the kind of opinion items. And so, the more factual material and difficult it was for the subject to grasp, the more likely that a highly intellectual subject would change his opinion. On the other hand, men with lower intellect often change opinion from the minimal factual knowledge. The "curve of forgetting" factual information could change subject's opinions was relatively short-lived as he regressed over time to previous positions. The sleeper effect, on the other hand, happened when a subject had forgotten a portion of facts in the film and had originally changed his opinion somehow. His opinion was changing even more as when it was untied from the factual basis. One-sided arguments worked better with less educated subjects and those who initially favored the position. The two-sided arguments were effective with those who attained higher education and opposed the position at the start. Both arguments could work though. The findings supported the argument that mass communication was strongly influenced by human differences and complexities. The studies had set new disciplinary standards for communication research in terms of methodology. Alongside with the new method, the Army research represented vital turning point in the study of mass communication. It basically tapped the need to master the art of persuasion which may be modified and/or enhanced in the following years. Chapter 8 Communication and Persuasion: The Search for the Magic Keys This chapter discusses the study of Carl Hovland about the magic keys in persuasion and communication. After exploring Hovland and his studies, the chapter has drawn the investigations and the results of Hovland's studies. This is considered to be a representative research in four criteria like content, audience, response and communicator. The chapter's objectives are as follows: To achieve a concise idea regarding the background of Hovland and his research on magic keys. To have in depth discussion of the representative research in each four criteria in communication. To have a full grasp of the meaning of the notions and the conclusions discussed in the investigation and the results of the study. According to Hovland, the magic keys refers to the keys of the communication-persuasion interrelationship that could be utilized to open the mysteries of how comments and behavior could be identified. Researchers want to explore these keys because they provide criticisms to change overt behavioral trends in a socially acceptable manner which would result to pro-social attitudes. The study of Hovland and his associates resumed using 50 respondents and was published in Communication and Persuasion. Their mission is to investigate the laws of persuasion. According to Hovland, the cycle of a person or a communicator conveys stimuli that are normally verbal to adapt the behavior of other person or the audience. Persuasion may lead to transformations in two fields: opinion which is usually verbalized that is made of expectations, evaluations and interpretations. Attitude, this explicates reactions avoiding or approaching some person, group, object or symbol. It shows negative or positive motivation value and may not be verbalized or aware. However, a transformation in attitude may impact a person's comment. However, a change in a person's general behavior may lead to variations of opinion. Thus, one of the major manners in which communication could change thoughts is to alter verbal opinions. Chapter 9 Personal Influence: The Two-Step flow of Communication Controversies regarding the effects of media on both the society and human condition increased in the 1940s. Researchers decided to reassess the status problem of media effects and came up with a design to address such predicament. The design was named Decatur Study Design because field work actually started on Decatur in 1945. The study was a follow-up of the Chapter 4 research on the two-step flow of communication theory that described the movement of information via interpersonal networks. It also assessed the importance of the change from stimulus-response framework to two-step flow of mass communication. This research mission was aimed to study opinion leaders with actual contact with the recipient of their influence on day-to-day basis. Opinion leaders were one of the most powerful influentials affecting people's decision in all sorts of marketplace. The Decatur study identified 4 areas of influence discussed in the study; marketing (food & household), fashion (clothing, hair style, cosmetics etc.), public affairs (political and social issues) and movies. There were 4 strategies when examining personal influence: generally influential, specific influentials, everyday contacts and self designation. The marketing leaders influence people at the same general status level. The influence took place horizontally. Women with many social contacts were most likely the most influential in marketing. The fashion leaders were those young and socially active women from middle to high social class. Status would be considered. Public affairs leaders were generally ruled by men. Women in this field tended to be concentrated in the higher status level. However, women with more social contacts were more influential than those of the shy type. Movie selection leaders comprised of young single individuals regardless of social status. Gregariousness and social status did not make any significant difference. Moviegoing in Decatur study design was an important part of the youth culture. The characteristics of opinion leaders were describe through a framework: position on the life cycle, position on the community's socio-economic ladder (SES) and the extent of the individual's social contacts (gregariousness). Position in the life cycle increased the likelihood of being knowledgeable about some topics but not to others. The socio-economic status personal influence could move towards all sides of the community social strata. Social status was determined based on years of education and amount of rent paid. The many the social contacts a person has, the more opportunities he/she can serve as an opinion leader. In addition, researchers devised an index of gregariousness. Primary group was of limited size whose members have direct relationships with each other whilst the secondary group was of a large size and whose members interacted less and with temporary relationship. Primary social relationships were necessary factors in the way people behaved. The nature versus nature debate sought to argue what made of a personality, inherited or environment Generally, Decatur study design explored the role being played by the people in the social flow of information. It signified social relationship in mass communication process. Decatur and the two-step flow basically set out new directions of research vital in the adoption of innovation, news diffusion and the study of distortion in interpersonal communications. The study failed to verify the concept that mass communications should be feared. Finally, this study helped the readers to understand the evolution of theories and researches in mass communications. Works Cited Lowery, Shearon and DeFleur, Melvin. Milestones in Mass Communication Research: Media Effects. Longman Publishing Group, 1983. Read More