Adult learning and development perspectives from educational psychology - Essay Example

Table of Contents Educational Psychology and Evaluation ..2 Theoretical Perspectives ...3 Theoretical vs. Methodological Perspectives....3 Developing Learning.....4 The Wuggles Study4 Theories that support frameworks for Learning and Development...5 Limitations of Traditional Methodologies.....5 Constructive Abstraction....6 Reductive Abstraction....7 Adult Learning through Sociocultural point of view.8 Tharp's seven assisted learning ideas....8 How the mind develops throughout adulthood...8 Learning possibilities with younger adults...8 Learning possibilities with middle-aged adults....9 Learning possibilities with older adults9 Intelligence in adults.9 Adults in reading and remembering text..9 Strategies for adult learners..9 Computer usage11 Granott's research in adult educational psychology.12 Course ID: EDUC 30110 Name: Zaida R Valdes Student ID: 206012 Title of Book - Adult Learning and Development: Perspectives From Educational Psychology Edited by - M Cecil Smith and Thomas Pourchot Educational Psychology and Evaluation Educational psychologists have discovered individual differences that start from the learning and development of children from schooling and end at their adolescence. Researchers have not only studied various behaviours of children but also analyzed and evaluated them by measuring their attitudes, testing their capabilities, instructional practices, and different cognitive responses. Educational psychologists believe that although adult learning and development are lifelong processes, but it is also unskeptical that the initial education and learning styles are those factors that depends entirely upon the values and morals which a child learn from its schooling environment. Wittrock defines educational psychology as "The scientific study of psychology in education". (Wittrock, p. 4) Adult educational psychology is concerned with the scientific methodology of learning styles of activities and developmental processes, which further results in the instructional practices and follow ups that promote learning and development not only restricted to educational aspects but also in other fields of adult growth throughout their development of adulthood. In this sense adult educational psychology has proved to be very beneficial and helpful, as it requires the use of latest technical methodologies, which helps the parents as well as teachers to understand about various complexities of adults' lives, which often the adults' tend to hide. Furthermore, adult educational psychology requires a more interdisciplinary approach that is not limited to the boundaries of traditional child-centered educational psychology as adults learn and develop from and within across multiple, interacting circumstances. Adults continue to learn throughout their lives irrespective of being in any environment, whatsoever be the circumstances and background. Theoretical Perspectives Technology has transformed everything in this new era towards perfection and betterment of life style. All these changes are reflected in the attitude of today's generation, but how Adult learning is subjected towards change as they adopt and they must adopt new changes easily and conveniently. So, adults are subjected to learning or development The main bone of contention here lies in the distinction between the issues of "learning" and "development". Learning and development can be molded in the form of "developing" and "non developing" processes. Theoretical vs. Methodological Perspective Developing learning can be referred to as the learning style followed by clear and achievable dimensions with such findings that support the formality of collaborative adult learning. Theoretical perspective awakes the need to follow traditional theories of learning and development without any modification to the conventional methods whereas methodological learning identifies the complexities of developmental learning leading to conventional methods which not only focus on individuals, whereas authentic learning develops in social context; but also constrain the learning process, stripping off attributes that support developing learning. (Smith, p. 16) Developing Learning Many researchers have set clear cut boundaries in the context of "development" and "learning", before studying micro development, development was recognized by any fundamental process whereas learning was identified experience and practice. Three attributes identify developing learning with highlighting micro development: 1. Growth Trajectory: Developing learning moves towards a more technical and advanced knowledge skill. 2. Fundamental Restructuring: Developing learning undergoes restructuring that results in qualitative shifts in knowledge management and reorganization. 3. Self-scaffolding: Developing learning generates knowledge that supports unguided construction of more advanced knowledge. (Smith, p. 18) The Wuggles Study This case study of micro developmental learning enabled the adults towards their hypothesis to explore the wuggles, which had sensors and different interconnections, helped the adults to explore and struct their knowledge of the wuggle individually and in forming different groups. This learning was analyzed by using Fischer's (1980) dynamic skill theory, which was designed for studying long-term development along with the definition of levels of complexity in cognitive, emotional, and social developmental environment as a series of control structures and specifies transformation rules relating the structures to each other. In this study, levels of complexity in learning about the robots were defined by applying skill theory's formal definition of levels to the wuggles context. (Smith, p. 19) Theories that support Frameworks for Learning and Development Such frameworks have been developed and analyzed by researchers that support the trends that can interrelate learning and development to certain extent. Wave Theory: Siegler (1996) developed wave theory, which explained development as consecutive, partially overlapping waves. According to Siegler, "children use a variety of strategies in the same time frame. What changes over time is the distribution of ways of thinking or strategies. At a given age, different ways of thinking can be represented by the corresponding points on different waves". (Smith, p. 24) Logistic Growth Model: Van Geert developed a framework which analyzed both development and learning through logistic growth model, which demonstrated various model accounts for learning and developmental processes, which range from classical learning curves through S-shaped growth to oscillatory fluctuations. Limitations of Traditional Methodologies Traditional methodologies draw a boundary across development and learning in three ways: It compares development and learning analytically for each process. Traditional methodologies despite learning from interactions among people study and evaluate single individuals. Traditional methods strip off the attributes of learning and developing process. Educational theorists have highlighted the significance of structuring learning experiences with the learner in mind, thereby allowing the learner a complete freedom to choose from among several learning activities, and seeing growth and learning as something that learners do, not something that is done to them. (Smith, p. 29) When adults learn, they develop. Although psychology serves as the grounds for adult development and learning, adult educational theorists describe adults as more motivated and self-directed, towards learning and are able to change perspectives more easily than children or adolescents. Constructive Abstraction This constructive order is what Piaget and neo-Piagetians have called stages or levels of cognitive development constructive abstraction, is the learning potential that affords abstraction of schemes and knowledge structures with progressively larger experiential scopes (Smith, p. 37) In facilitating situations, constructive abstraction develops by using mental attention to coordinate schemes that appear to be co-functional and often co-activated. This coordination of schemes takes place by one of three ways, which we call LC-learning, LM-learning, and LA-learning. LC-Learning: Logical-content learning is a slow process that does not demand mental effort, but unfortunately it deteriorates in late adulthood. For children and young adults, however, LC-learning does not impose developmental constraints. Subjects of all ages can use LC-learning with ease, young as well or better than older children or adults. Limitation of LC-learning: LC learning requires facilitating or task achieving situations. LM-Learning: LM learning induces mental hyper-activation as a result of allocating mental capabilities. LA-Learning: Logical Affective learning is the resultant learning of LM-structures when LM starts producing affects. LM-learning, in contrast to LC-learning, can occur in two ways, positively or negatively, in situations that require task relevant schemes. By means of LC-learning, LM-learning, and LA-learning, constructive abstraction coordinates cognitive information, along with instinctual feedback, and personality or personal traits. Reductive Abstraction Unlike Constructive Abstraction, reductive abstraction occurs where circumstances are not positively dealt with, rather it occurs due to severe mental interruption or lack of hyper-activation that leads the reductive abstraction towards misleading situations and circumstances, common in cognitive problem tasks both in children and adults. Adult Learning through Sociocultural point of view Jarvis (1992), an adult learning theorist, contended "The process of learning is located at the interface of people's biography and the sociocultural milieu in which they live, for it is at this intersection that experiences occur" Many socio cultural theorists have used Vygotskian theoretical writings to evaluate student learning capabilities in a social context while many socio cultural Neo-Vygotskians have expanded the workings of researching adult activity settings, thereby advancing the recent shift in education from both mechanistic and traditional discovery models of instruction to the extent of freeing learning and cognitive apprenticeships. According to Vygotsky, developmental functioning whether on individual basis or in groups occurs twice in person, first socially or inter psychologically, second individually or intra psychologically inside the person. In this process, the learner experiences new information in a social context and develops the necessary understanding as to how to apply those experiences. By extending the socio cultural theory towards adult learning, it is evident that learning entirely depends upon understanding various styles of research required in adult-learning environments. Tharp's seven assisted learning ideas By consolidating Tharp's seven assisted learning ideas with the six cognitive apprenticeship techniques noted by Collins, yielded the list of 10 socio culturally based teaching techniques which includes modeling, coaching, scaffolding and fading, questioning, encouraging student, pushing student, fostering student and providing cognitive task to the students. How the mind develops throughout adulthood A framework is required not only to investigate but also to implement adult learning, which comprises of cultural and social tools, settings, institutions, and environments. Both the cultural tools and learning settings of adulthood are split into three levels. These levels reflect: (a) the formal training and education of early adulthood, (b) the workplace and family responsibilities that typify middle adult years, and (c) the recreational activities and informal learning opportunities of later adulthood. (Smith, p. 75) Learning possibilities with younger adults Formal Learning Environments: Technology has moved so fast that its advancements have introduced colourful and exciting young adult-learning possibilities. No longer are colleges and vocational training institutes the only providers of young adult learning. (Smith, p. 76) Formal learning institutions have changed young adult lifestyles towards self-directional improvements. Informal Learning Environments: These include zoos, libraries, aquariums and national museums, which transform and motivate young adults towards human learning. Learning possibilities with middle-aged adults These include those adults aged between mid to late 20s are confronted with a huge myriad of learning alternatives. Learning Aids: Mediational learning aids of middle adult professional and home life include company brochures, fliers on bulletin boards, computer help manuals, strategic planning documents, job aids, notes to spouses, magazines in dentist waiting rooms, repair manuals, fax machines, voice-mail devices, and school newsletters. (Smith, p. 80) Learning possibilities with older adults Unlike young and middle-aged adults, older learning involves a sense of patience as the aging process leaves adults with declining abilities and because of this fact that they are in desperate need of learning opportunities with an array of memory and retrieval compensation strategies. It is very complex for an old adult to learn or gain something new. With the expansion in learning possibilities and the ways to overcome their deficits of learning older adults can maximize their contribution to society through participation in a myriad of knowledge-seeking and information-providing situations. (Smith, p. 80) Intelligence in Adults By deploying a pragmatic approach it is for sure that intelligent assessments made on the basis of school type knowledge possess no values or gives no credit to the individual, who has acquired skills through experience. However, recent research from the cognitive science and artificial intelligence literature has demonstrated that knowledge is an important determinant of both learning and performance. (Smith, p. 148) The individual's personality characteristics, interests, and motivational skills also help in determining the direction of the individual's interest and efforts, the individual's likely persistence in a field of study, and along with intelligence, jointly predict the likelihood of success in acquiring new knowledge and skills. (Smith, p. 151) Adults in reading and remembering text Reading process depends upon the reading speed and method adopted to understand the text. Reading Rates: When reading, each word must be encoded, each phrase deciphered, and each sentence understood. Not only does the sentence need to make sense, it needs to make sense in light of all the other sentences around it. Several researchers have investigated the nature of reading and delivered cogent theories concerning its internal activities. Legge, Ross, Maxwell, and Luebker conducted research regarding reading capabilities from which they came to know about low-vision readers. The results showed: 68 normal-vision readers from 18 to 36 years of age drop slowly from 71.2% to 60.5% as drift rate increased from 10 wpm to 200 wpm. At the faster 300 wpm and 450 wpm comprehension dropped more substantially. At 400 wpm or 450 wpm comprehension dropped to levels near 20% the performance level of a group that took the multiple-choice tests without first reading the texts. Participants who read at 230 wpm i.e., about 70% of their maximum accurate oral reading rates, failed. Strategies for adult learners Memory improvement has always been an obstruction in the way of understanding for adults particularly with older adults. In this concern some mnemonic strategies have been introduced by various researchers: The Face-Name Mnemonic Strategy: Remembering name is the most common and difficult task, which can overcome by applying "face-name mnemonic strategy" to make the name meaningful by recoding it as a concrete name clue, and then embedding this clue in a meaningful, interactive image in the form of visual imagery. The Keyword Method: Smith has described this "method of vocabulary acquisition" as a close cousin to the "face-name mnemonic strategy", illustration is given by considering a word 'bergschrund' which is recorded by visualizing similar keyword, such as 'burgers'. Then the keyword and definition can be related by developing some sort of meaningful scene, which would help in the retrieval of the desired word. It has proven to be a versatile technique used for 20 years where the keyword method has been adapted, extended, and validated as a powerful memory strategy in a variety of situations including second language vocabulary learning, acquiring science concepts, associating states and their capitals and learning about well known people. (Smith, p. 165) Computer Usage Meyer and Poon conducted a survey according to which those who use computers: 65 years and over: 8.4% of the population age 65 years and over 25 to 34 years: 25.3% of adults 22 to 24 years: 25.4% of adults 18 to 21 years: 30.4% of adults use computers It was also observed that more educated adults use more computers than less educated adults. Meyer and Poon found an interaction between age group and computer versus paper presentation; young adults showed more efficient reading comprehension when reading from a computer, whereas old adults showed better performance from the printed page. (Smith, p. 190) Recent investigations of adults' reading skills have consisted primarily of three types, Functional literacy or primarily reading skills, Cognitive mechanisms underlying skilled reading Strategic skills in reading The significance of skilled reading and the importance of developing strategic skills lie in understanding, remembering, and using text information. The relationship between reading skills and reading practices can be evaluated from the fact that skilled readers are likely to read more than unskilled readers. Granott's Research in Adult Educational psychology Granott conducted a research in order to establish a sound relationship between Adult educational psychology and adult life span development through learning and developmental approach. According to Granott, "Developing learning occurs in social contexts such as classrooms and work sites where groups of individuals interact, engage in joint problem solving and co-construct knowledge". (Smith, p. 260) Adult educational psychology concerns on the personality traits of adults as learners, and identify the ways as to how to evaluate a successful adult educational background. The most authentic means of identifying success or failure of an adult in his life span depends upon several factors among which initial schooling is the foremost. Other important factors that takes an adult towards a successful educational career depends upon parent contribution in providing children with all their learning experiences which serves as the basis to provide a mental sound behavioural development. Work Cited Smith M. Cecil & Pourchot Thomas, 1998. "Adult Learning and Development: Perspectives from Educational Psychology": Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahwah, NJ. Read More