Gender and Sexuality - Essay Example

Introduction Gender has a factual basis in anatomy, which is related to the biological process of reproduction. Many but not all forms of life, including humans, reproduce on the basis of admixture and interchange of genetic material. The genetic structure of males of such species is different from that of their females. There are evolutionary benefits in terms of environmental adaptation, in the interchange of male and female genetic structures. The factual basis of gender therefore has a utilitarian perspective. Reproduction is not the sole pre-occupation of higher orders of life, especially humans. The ability to emote with others, feelings of intimacy which have nothing with any impulse of pressure to procreate, and the freedom to express all facets of the mind, are factors which distinguish people as a distinct species and the highest and most evolved life form. Giving and receiving sexual pleasure is a complex trait and a highly evolved capability at the same time. It may or may not be associated with reproduction. Sexuality involves both the physical body, as well as the mind. It is strongly influenced by environmental circumstances. Imposed norms of society dominate notions of sexuality and its link with gender so strongly, that the two axes are inextricably mixed in most minds. A strong bias towards norms of heterosexuality is an overbearing outcome of these conventions. Such impositions are so ingrained in standards of childhood development that instances of misconceptions and denials of natural instincts abound. This document reviews published literature on the valid and assumed links between gender and sexuality, considers the implications and burdens of stereotypes, reviews ethnic and cultural differences in the acceptance of homosexuality, and concludes with suggestions for a liberal world in which individual freedom with respect to sexuality is respected and encouraged. A Review of Literature While there are some historical references to homosexuality during ancient times, heterosexuality has dominated the social development throughout the ages. The practice of homosexuality has been entirely repressed at worst, and indulged in surreptitiously and treated as a form of abnormal behavior, not just for centuries, but even during the first half of the 20th century. The scientific study of homosexuality is of relatively recent origin with a rapid acceleration of original work in recent times (Gonsiorek, 1982). The United States has led the world in creating a kind of revolution in researching and understanding homosexual behavior, especially during the last decade. However, the volume of work available to date is still scanty, considering the complexity and social significance of the matter. Collections of findings, surveys, and theories are therefore especially valuable at this stage. This applies to surveys of sexual preferences as well (Oliver, & Hyde, 1993). Homosexuality may be more prevalent, especially in some degrees, far more often and widely than conservative influences have cared to admit. Family backgrounds and societal influences need to be understood to appreciate the sexuality of homosexuals (Ritter, and Terndrup, 2002). It is now appreciated in professional circles that conceptions of homosexuality as have prevailed in the past, may be in grave error. Such biases are self-propagating in powerful ways because they form the backdrop to the development of personalities by infants and by growing children as well. An individual may not express or even admit to homosexuality because of strong conditioning of the mind that it is morally wrong, and because of imposed notions that heterosexual feelings are the only legitimate and desirable form of human sexuality. International researchers (Asthana, and Oostvogels, 2001) have observed ethnic differences between people of the same sexual orientation, with respect to their sexual habits and preferences. Homosexual men in Southern India for example, experience intimacy in ways different from the typical Western stereotype that prevails for gay men. The relatively recent liberation of homosexuals in the first world is yet to reach the shores of many emerging countries. The need to respect cultural traditions is a major impediment to a global understanding of homosexuality, and untold numbers of people may suffer in distant places even today. The gender schema theory (Bem, 1981) is a major work, establishing the influences of sexual norms on gender. All communities allot roles for each gender and ingrain their norms in children. These paradigms determine value judgments about sexual orientation. Adults emerge with strong stereotypes of how they should appear, act, and behave, depending upon whether they are male or female. Such norms vary with ethnicity and other aspects of social backgrounds. Many people are not aware of the merits and facts of sexual orientation, which impedes their fulfillment of their full sexuality potentials (Bressler, and Lavender, 1986). This has been established by surveys of the nature and qualities of sexual responses. The gender schema is brutal and uncompromising. The prevalence of homosexuality, as a consequence, is as unknown, as a general appreciation of its social legitimacy is lacking. All forms of homosexuality are related to mental health status and conditions (Cabaj and Stein, 1996). There are historic reasons for the widespread notion that homosexuality is somehow a deviation from the normal. It is only of relatively new origin that homosexuality has been de-linked from mental wellness. An associated development has been to distinguish between the practice of homosexuality and the incidence of homosexual emotions in individuals (Cabaj and Stein, 1996). Much work needs to be done to erase misconceptions about homosexuality. The mental wellness of homosexuals is a special concern (Gonsiorek, 1982). Care givers may not be favorably disposed to managing mental health of homosexuals, and the consequences of conforming to unsuitable and inappropriate social norms, are not dealt with adequately. The entire matter of given roles for gender and homosexuality needs fresh appraisal (Ross, 1983). The world needs new schema for liberal development and learning processes for children. Homosexuality has been observed in non-human life forms such as in primates, yet acceptance within communities has been lacking (Ross, 1988). Powerful social institutions such as the Church have opposed homosexuality (Ross, 1988). Recent studies have established conditions in which homosexuality is likely to occur (Van Wyk, and Geist, 1984). Sexuality of various types may be part of a continuum. The Kinsey Scale is an invaluable tool in this process. Stereotypes of Gender and Sexuality Gender differences and roles are integral to social organization, and are hallmarks of differences between cultures as well (Bem, 1981). Though being female or male has a limited purpose related to the evolution of the species in nature, the vast majority of people unquestioningly accept that gender imposes prescriptions for sexuality. Culture is a formidable foe for the uninhibited expression of sexuality, because most communities place strong restraints on all public exhibitions of sexuality. Any deviation from gender norms in terms of sexuality is generally superimposed on a template of socially proscribed if not outright illegal behavior. Culture and gender interplay to form adult personalities from childhood (Bem, 1981). Everything is related to gender right from late infancy! Most children have no opportunities to explore their natural sexual orientation. Even when they choose to dress or behave in manners which are deviant in the slightest degree, they are subject to ridicule and admonishment. The pressure to conform to given stereotypes is unremitting whether the child is at home, in school, or with friends. Sexuality has to develop within this rigid structure. Sex typing is a primary driving force of social organization. It may differ in details between communities, but is omnipresent in all ethnicities. Gender based schematic processing is at the heart of roles, personalities, and perceptions that individuals learn to develop. Schema theory is a complex matrix, providing imposed and structured meanings for all in-coming stimuli. All choices that people are allowed to make, relate to gender and social roles for males and females. Individuals even assess their adequacies as individuals in terms of the schema. Aspirations and motivations are fashioned on the basis of anatomy! The gender schema is a prescriptive guide for all opinions and thinking. People regulate their behavior as per this schema, because it is the basis of their self-confidence and self-respect. Intimacy is a crucial aspect of such prescriptions. Both males and females are conditioned to think about their feelings for other people. They are taught how to choose partners, how to court them, and limits within which natural feelings may be expressed. There is a severe paucity of factual and verified information on differences between the natural and imposed sexualities of most people. Heterosexuality is strongly built in to the schema. People are supposed to be attracted to the other sex. The impositions of schema may prevent individuals from realizing and expressing their sexuality in full (Bressler, and Lavender, 1986). Growing children are especially vulnerable to the opprobrium and ridicule which is heaped on them if they show any inclination towards intense physical and emotional contacts with their own genders. There is no room for individual freedom of expression with respect to sexual orientation, and such mental imprisonment is especially rigorous in conservative and tradition-bound communities. One of the benefits of sexual regimentation is the progression towards the social union of marriage, and the raising of a new generation. Sexuality is given exclusive hues of duties related to propagation of the species, rather than as a form of emotional joy in its own right. The implication about the value judgment of heterosexuality follows as an inevitable corollary: homosexuality is associated with abnormality if not outright evil, and individuals are conditioned to reject any buds of such feelings which they make secretly experience. Overall, the preponderance of heterosexuality is contrived in some measure. Since sexuality is a complex and highly evolved emotional expression in its natural state, the integration of identity development with gender (Ritter and Terndrup, 2002) is another nail in the coffin of homosexuality! Gender roles and sexual identities are so highly regimented (Ross, 1983) that most people are not inclined to explore any variations from the paradigms which they are given. Actually, masculine and feminine roles in homosexuality may not be needed at all, so many people regimented in to heterosexuality, may develop in to more capable and productive members of society once they are mentally liberated. Cultural Influences The United States has emerged as an admirable exception since the 1960s for homosexuals of all ethnicities. Though discrimination persists, it is secular by origin, affecting all residents of a State or city in equal manner. Thus restrictions on marriage and parental rights do not overtly discriminate anywhere in the United States, on the basis of race or cultural roots. Homosexuals in the country can express their sexuality in relative liberty, and are not constrained by culture. Homosexuals in major parts of the world cannot behave as per their peers in the United States. Cultural influences, with strong social support, affect the inclinations and behavior patterns of homosexuals Sexual habits of homosexuals may vary from one country to another, but there is a common thread of forbidding discouragement from associating with each other openly. Forums such as gay bars must function in clandestine manner if at all. Even open admittance of homosexuality may not be permitted. Homosexuals find various ways of coping with these pressures. They many dress as men but behave and think like females in their communities. However, the most common consequence is that they develop bisexual traits. Many of them may harbor homosexual tendencies without admitting it. They may unconsciously enjoy intimacy with men even as they discharge responsibilities as husbands and fathers. Only a few fit the Western stereotype of being openly and exclusively homosexual without any attempt to disguise either gender or sexual preferences. These cultural differences over-ride variations in sexual orientation, a synthesis of which may be found in the gender schema theory (Bem, 1981). Family obligations and the social environment with respect to homosexuality affect sexuality within homosexuals in general. Loss of social status and discrimination affect sexual habits. These pressures are magnified by strong undertones of traditions and conventions in community life. Economic deprivation adds to the woes of such people, and result in their suppression of any homosexual tendencies. The extent to which such distortions exist cannot be known without primary data collection. Such surveys are mostly motivated by health care concerns (Asthana, and Oostvogels, 2001).but yield invaluable psychological insights at the same time. One may hope that with the passage of time, globalization and economic development will drive all communities towards a more liberal treatment of homosexuals and their natural rights to emotional freedom. Orientation and Perception The practice of homosexuality and the subtle attractions that people may experience towards others of the same sex are often confused (Cabaj and Stein, 1996). The gender schema works to shut out many natural elements of sexuality in many individuals. Homosexuality, in some degrees, may be far more prevalent than openly declared and socially accepted. True sexuality is neither limited to one's genitals, nor is it solely driven by commitments to marriage and procreation. However, these are generally the only aspects of sexuality which are commonly considered. The true sexual orientation and some preferences may find no expression in real life. Homosexuals realize their sexuality in 5 stages, though not all individuals have to follow the same path and go through all the stages (Gonsiorek, 1982). The first 2 stages are the most important, and are behind unnatural repression of homosexuality. The first stage is pre-coming out: it is in late infancy or early childhood that adults may notice that a child is perceptively different from the majority. Social norms create great conflicts for this individual as it grows older. They may develop low self-esteem. They deny their sexuality to avoid censure and ridicule. Coming out is the second stage when they are able to admit to their unusual and special sexuality. This starts with merely acknowledging thoughts and fantasy. This is often in adolescence. An adolescent who is able to survive the coming-out phase mentally is likely to become a happy and productive homosexual adult. It is natural that the paucity of information on the prevalence of homosexuality means matching shortage of validated information on the sexual preferences of people with such orientation. However it is known that homosexual males masturbate more than females (Oliver, & Hyde, 1993). Men are also more promiscuous. It would appear that societal pressures are greater on female homosexuals. However, gender differences within homosexuals are on the decline (Oliver, & Hyde, 1993). We may look forward to greater equality in this regard over the course of time. Opportunities for homosexuals to express their emotions more openly will also help them to enjoy sexual practices on par with their heterosexual counterparts. Sexual orientation is fluid and can change over time (Ritter, and Terndrup, 2002). Heterosexism, racism, and sexism affect sexual orientation. The pre-coming out and coming out stages of childhood may be repressed, leading to a kind of resigned and disinterested heterosexuality. A person brought up in a conservative atmosphere may change sexual orientation after discharging basic familial duties, or after moving to a more liberal environment. Open displays of homosexual affection, and the growing practice of public figures including some celebrities admitting to their homosexual orientations, may encourage many followers and fans to discover their hidden selves afresh. The Kinsey Scale (Van Wyk, and Geist, 1984) is an important tool for bridging the gap between the total practice of homosexuality and the incidence of some homosexual tendencies in bisexual or superficially heterosexual adults. The scale operates from zero to 6, with exclusive homosexuality rating a 0 and exclusivity homosexuality rating a 6. Thus high ratings on the scale indicate degrees of homosexuality in so-called heterosexuals. Adolescents with poor parental relations, more contacts with peers of their own orientation, and dislikes for activities associated with their given genders, are more likely to have relatively high scores on the scale. Children who learn to masturbate from members of their own gender may also tend towards homosexuality in later life. The joys of homosexuality need supporting circumstances and opportunities, which are denied to the vast majority of individuals during their formative years. Travails of Diversity Though the persecution of homosexuals is obvious, it is still worth underscoring because of the deep impacts it has on sexuality and on other aspects of life as well. The 1974 declaration of the American Psychiatric Association against any form of discrimination in respect of homosexuals is evidence of the fact that a deviation from the imposed and assumed norm of heterosexuality is a sign of lack of competence and reliability (Cabaj and Stein, 1996). There has been a historic assumption that homosexuality represents or is the outcome of a pathology (Cabaj and Stein, 1996). There are many communities which consider homosexuality to be unnatural and find various devious ways to suppress it as much as possible. People with homosexual tendencies have to suffer great humiliation in a variety of ways, which saps their self-esteem. This may also affect sexual performance. It has only been in the 1960s that homosexuals became politically aware, and began to assert their rights in the United States (Cabaj and Stein, 1996). While much progress has been made since then, he legal rights of homosexuals vary within the country, from one State to another, and between cities as well (Ritter, and Terndrup, 2002). Discrimination, unfair employment practices, and denial of marriage and parental rights are common. Access to public facilities, accommodation, freedom of speech, and physical safety may all be restricted. Immigration rights may also be discriminatory. The situation is much worse with respect to pre-homosexual children (Ritter, and Terndrup, 2002). Homosexuals may suffer terribly in childhood and adolescence as they encounter conflicts between norms and their internal feelings (Gonsiorek, 1982). The situation is much worse in other countries. Continuous repression and abuse affects sexual habits of homosexuals. Male homosexuals may suffer from problems of desire, arousal, and orgasm (Ross, 1988). Inhibited ejaculation is common. Gay men may also be lacking in sexual experience, and suffer from performance pressures. Communication problems, and lack of insight in to their treatment needs, impede clinical help. Conclusions Most societies need new legislative support for the equal rights of homosexuals (Cabaj and Stein, 1996). Some of the discrimination is covert, and based on ingrained misconceptions about the sexuality of homosexuals. However, legislation alone is not enough, as an entire overhaul of the gender schema is required to allow naturally homosexual children develop as per their proclivities. Overall, the U.S. has made commendable progress in liberating homosexuals, and it is a standard for the rest of the world to follow. References Asthana, S, and Oostvogels, R, (2001), The social construction of male 'homosexuality' in India: Implications for HIV transmission and prevention, Social science and medicine, 52(5): 707-21 Bem, S. (1981), Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88, 354-364. Bressler, L. C, and Lavender, A. D, 1986, Sexual fulfillment of heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual women, Journal of Homosexuality, 12(3-4):109-22. Cabaj, R.P, and Stein, T. S, (1996), Textbook of Homosexuality and Mental Health, American Psychiatric Pub, Inc Gonsiorek, J. C, (1982), Homosexuality and Psychotherapy: a practitioner's handbook of affirmative models, Haworth Press Oliver, M., & Hyde, J (1993), Gender differences in sexuality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 29-51 Ritter, K.Y, and Terndrup, A.I, (2002), Handbook of Affirmative Psychotherapy with Lesbians and Gay Men, Guilford Press Ross, M. W, (1983), Homosexuality and Social Sex Roles, Haworth Press Ross, M. W, (1988), Psychopathology and Psychotherapy in Homosexuality, Haworth Press Van Wyk, P. H, and Geist, C. S, (1984) Psychosocial development of heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 13(6):505-44. Read More