Runology in Scandinavia - Essay Example

s Runology in Scandinavia There have been many theories launched over who created the runes. Some of these theories have more supporters than others, but they all have one thing in common. None of these theories can be proved 100%. No runic inscriptions, as we know the runes, can be dated with certainty to before 200 AD. By 300 AD the runic alphabet was the only alphabet used in Scandinavia. However, it went out of use in middle Europe due to the popularity of the Latin alphabet, which had followed the expansion of Christianity. There are several runic alphabets, each used during a different period of time or in a specific location. These include the Elder Futhark, the Younger Futhark, the Anglo-Saxon Futhork, and others. During the Viking Age, beginning somewhat before 800 AD, the Younger Futhark came into use in Scandinavia. This alphabet uses only sixteen runes, and in many cases one symbol is used to represent many sounds. Even when dealing with the Younger Futhark, there are several related but slightly different alphabets that vary by place and time. These can be roughly divided into two main types: the first is the "long-branch" or normal Younger Futhark, which are sometimes referred to as the "Danish runes". There is also a variant known as the "short-twig runes" in which the forms are simpler, also called the "Norwegian-Swedish runes". "Shorthand" versions of these futharks appeared, as did hybrid variants. What exact form was used depended on exactly what date one is looking at, and what region. By the Middle Ages, as the language changed and so did the runic alphabet. Gradually symbols were changed, and new symbols adopted, resulting in a 16-rune alphabet plus extensions. Most of the surviving Viking Age runic inscriptions come from rune-stones, which were erected as grave markers, memorials, and cenotaphs most often. By the middle ages in Scandinavia, runes came to be used occasionally to record Latin inscriptions (approximately 10% of all medieval runic inscriptions are Latin) and these usually invocations of saints or prayers. Occasionally runes are found on various wooden items such as crosses. In Bergen, Norway, 110 "ownership tags" have been found, shaped in many cases so that they can be easily attached to goods or merchandise. Several runic "business memos" have also been discovered in Bergen, usually on a wooden stick which has been whittled flat on at least one side, with the most usual type having four flat sides for inscription. Since the runes occurred in a fixed order, carpenters and construction workers used them to label wooden roof beams for churches so that they went up in the correct order. The oldest runes discovered in Norway date from 400 AD. They were based upon the 24 - rune Elder Futhark of Germanic origin. Two of the runes in the Elder Futhark, Pertra and Eoh, have never been found in any Norwegian rune text. From 550 AD to 700 AD there was a transition period between the older 24-rune Futhark and the newer 16-rune Futharks. By the end of this period, the 24-rune Futhark went completely out of use and the 16-rune Futharks had prevailed. Then, about 900 AD, the Shorttwiggs-runes were introduced from Sweden. Shortly thereafter, from 1000 AD, Futharks with more than 16 runes became more prevalent, as these were more consistent with the Latin alphabet. These types of runes were used in Norway up to 1800 AD. After the end of the Viking period the runes became more and more in common use by ordinary people. A lot of rune inscriptions from the end of 1100's, 1200's and 1300's, the so-called town runes, show that it was not only the professional scribes who wrote runes. Even the ordinary people had learned the art of reading and writing runes because runes were the most accessible tool for them and were useful in their mercantile trading. "Training sticks" have been found which were used to learn runes, showing that more people could write and read than one had previously believed. It is interesting that knowledge of runes was not taught in the schools of the time which were run by the Christian church and clergy. Church and clergy schools were limited to those who could raise money for the fees. Therefore it appears that common man's knowledge of reading and writing runes was passed down from person to person. Numerous runic inscriptions from the later years found in archeological diggings in towns, for example Bryggen in Bergen, not only open a new world of thought and ideas, but have brought us in contact with the small merchants and small scale occupations or trades. Runic inscriptions enter into a regular part of trades and made contributions both in efficiency and specialization. The old brands or trademarks (made of runes) could replace writing out a whole name. Third parties could effectively be brought into trading transactions, debts recorded, or to deputize another to do business for one. Runic inscriptions from the 12 -1300's have brought us closer to the life in the cities. Most written sources are about important people and happenings, but these runic inscriptions were written by and about people in the street and their ordinary lives. Small traders and handworkers didn't only write their trademarks on boxes of pepper or yarn or butter. Through the rune scripts we also see their deepest feelings, yearnings and fears. The runic inscriptions also show us the full spectrum of the thoughts of the people of the Middle Ages on everything from traditional paganism and magic (galdr) to Christian piety. A bone of a cow bearing runic inscriptions was found in Oslo, dating from the late 1100's or early 1200's. According to runologist James Knirk more than one person wrote on this bone, which may have been used as a letter or message. Knirk says one hand wrote the first and forth lines, and possibly the second, but the third line was written by another. Prior to 500 AD the 24-rune Elder Futhark was used in Sweden. From 500 AD until 800 AD there were many Futharks which were transitions from the 24-rune Futhark to one of the 16-rune Futharks. By the end of this period the 24-rune Futhark was completely out of use and only 16-runes Futharks were in use. By 900 AD two different types of Shorttwigs-Futharks had been born. One was popularized in Norway and the other was used in the west (the British islands). By 1000 AD the adjustment of the runes to the Latin alphabet had begun, and several versions are found up until the Dalrunes, about 1700-1800 AD. Before 500 AD the 24-rune Elder Futhark was used in Denmark. From 500 AD to 800 AD there were many transitional futharks, reflecting a change from the 24-rune Futhark to the 16-rune Futharks. By the end of this period, the 24-rune Futhark went completely out of use and the 16-rune Futharks had prevailed. From 900 AD some of the runes changed, visually and phonetically. This occurred again about 950 AD and 1100 AD due to language changes. Runes dated to 1300 AD show evidence of being influenced by the Latin alphabet. Greenland was populated by settlers from Iceland and Norway from 985 or 986 A.D. The leader of the first group of settlers was Eirik Raude, the father of Leif Eiriksson. (Leif Eiriksson later discovered Vinland, hence North America). The group set out from Iceland with 25 ships, but only 14 ships arrived at Greenland. The rest of the ships were either wrecked in storms when they crossed the sea or turned back to Iceland. The settlers brought with them the Norse manner of living, as well as the runes. These people lived on Greenland for 500 years, until they mysteriously disappeared from history. Today, the only traces of them are the ruins they left behind. Approximately 60 runic inscriptions have been found on Greenland. Approx. 35 of these inscriptions have been discovered in Austerbygden, one inscription (see picture) has been found on the isle of Kingigtorssuaq (far north of the populated area) and approx. 20 inscriptions have been discovered in Vesterbygden. Aside from occasional runic marginalia found in Latin manuscripts, the only documented use for runes on parchment occurs around 1300 during the Scandinavian Middle Ages, when antiquarian interest led to some isolated use of runes in written documents. This medieval antiquarian revival was a period of intense interest in Viking Age poetry and history, and included such notable scholars as Snorri Sturluson, who authored the Prose Edda. A cryptic or coded way to write runes is called "Lnnruner" in Norwegian, which means "secret runes". In English, "coded runes", might be a better expression. The reason for writing runes in this way could be to hide the inscription's meaning, or, for example, to hide taboo words. The method could also just be another way to write runes - without any thought on magic or secrecy of the text. If you look at what has been written in secret or coded runes, you may find it difficult to find a purpose for hiding the meaning of the text. Therefore, it is possible that the rune master's only intention was to show how clever he was in the art of writing runes. When writing secret runes, one way is based counting the first rune in the Elder Futhark, Fehu, as the 1st rune. Uruz is counted as the 2nd rune, Thurisaz is the 3rd rune, Ansuz is counted as the 4th rune and so on. You find the right rune by counting the runes consecutive from the beginning to the end. The upper row in the Elder Futhark, Freyr's aettir is counted as the 3rd aettir, the middle row, Hagall's aettir is counted as the 2nd aettir, and the lower row, Tyr's aettir, is counted as the 1st aettir. Another way to write secret runes is to hide the meaning of the inscription by adding more twigs (lines) to the runes than there should be. Sometimes parts of a rune could also be omitted; for example the top of the rune. Another example is the "turn-left" inscription on The Trvik B-stone. This inscription is written in the Elder Futhark. The two rune stones, Trvika A and Trvika B, were found on the Trvika farm at Kvam in Hardanger, Hordaland. Both rune stones had been part of the walls in a robbed tomb-chamber. In addition to the rune stones, fragments of a cinerary urn, horse teeth, remnants of iron tools and cremated bones were also found. The inscriptions are dated to the first half of the 400's AD and the language is nSl. By 300 AD the runic alphabet was the only alphabet used in Scandinavia. However, it went out of use in middle Europe due to the popularity of the Latin alphabet, which had followed the expansion of Christianity. The runes could be written from left to right or right to left. They also could be written with the first sentence proceeding right to left and the second sentence proceeding left to right. Additionally, runes were sometimes written as a mirror image, upside down or bound together like the Norwegian . A single rune could also signify two runes. The runes were introduced to Scandinavia during the same period that the well known spiral-ornaments were introduced from Crete - about 1800-400 BC. According to this theory, the Goths were already familiar with the art of runes before they left Scandinavia between 200 BC and 200 AD. However, this theory is not so widespread. The runes created in South-Scandinavia in the 300's AD were inspired by the Latin alphabet, but put in a Scandinavian cultural relation. South-Scandinavia was a center of runes in ancient times. REFERENCES Jansson, Sven B.F. The Runes of Sweden. New York: Bedminster Press. 1962.] Liestl, Aslak. "Correspondence in Runes" Medieval Scandinavia 1 (1968). pp. 17-27. Moltke, Erik. Runes and Their Origin: Denmark and Elsewhere. Trans. by Peter G. Foote. Copenhagen: National Museum of Denmark, Nationalmuseets Forlag. 1985. Sawyer, Birgit. "The Erection of Rune-stones in Viking-Age Scandinavia; The Political Background". The Audience of the Sagas. The Eight International Saga Conference, Preprints. Bd 2, August 11-17, 1991 Gothenburg University, Gteborg: 1991. pp. 233-242. Sawyer, Birgit. "Viking-Age Rune-Stones as a Crisis Symptom" Norwegian Archaeological Review 24:2 (1991). pp. 97-112. Thompson, Claiborne W. "Nonsense Inscriptions in Swedish Uppland". Studies for Einar Haugen, Presented by Friends and Colleagues. Eds. Einar Ingvald Haugen and Evelyn Scherabon Firchow. The Hague: Mouton. 1972. pp. 522-534. Thompson, Claiborne W. Studies in Upplandic Runography. Austin: University of Texas Press. 1975. Read More