National Consciousness in the Late Ottoman Period - Essay Example

National Consciousness in the Late Ottoman Period (1860-1922) The late 19th century up to the early 20th century was a period characterized by the flourishing of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire. The growth of cultural nationalism had made the new generation of Turks adapt to the concept of national identity as well as fortified their allegiance to the Turkish nation (Lewis). This paper discusses the sources and manifestations of Turkish national consciousness in the late Ottoman period. Signs of the Times The notion of a nation-state based on Turkish nation was initiated during the onset of the Kemalist Revolution in the late 19th century. According to notable historians, the foundation and manifestation of Turkish national consciousness in this era are summarized as follows: Outside Influence The advent of nationalism in Western Europe in the 19th century had a substantial effect with regard to how the Christian population in the Ottoman state viewed their identity. During this period, the new radical nationalists were contending with the traditional leaders within the millets. This condition was compounded by the fact that the emerging superpowers of those times were meddling with the internal affairs of the state depending on what is beneficial for their own interest. (Poulton) The Tanzimat The Tanzimat is described as the embodiment of reforms pertaining to the various aspects of the relations between the state and the subject. It was pioneered by Mustafa Resid Pasa and continued by Ali Pasa and Fuad Pasa, who were modernist bureaucrats. The Tanzimat was established to challenge the prevailing system. Planned reforms on society, judiciary and education incorporated views on security of life and property, as well as fair and public trial. In addition, the Tanzimat aimed to introduce religious equality in courts, which shocked the Muslim population. (Poulton) Although these reforms failed to create the intended Ottoman nation, the Tanzimat facilitated the process of nationalism influencing the Christian populations and dismantling the empire in the Balkans. This was done by enfeebling the conservative millet leaders and rendering greater influence to the nationalists. (Poulton) The Young Ottomans and Nationalist Propaganda Young Ottomans, who gained distinction during the late Tanzimat period (1867-78), were the first to organize opposition groups which utilized ideas of the Enlightenment and tried to integrate modernization with Islam. Moreover, they were the foremost Ottoman group to harness the power of the media to proliferate their principles. (Poulton) Most notable of these Young Ottomans were Namik Kemal and Ali Suavi. The former successfully appealed for patriotism by popularizing the terms “hurriet” that means freedom, and “vatan” that extensively refers to the fatherland. The nationalist implication of “vatan” based on Namik’s usage became apparent. He emphasized that such was an emotional bond comprising of memories of ancestors, reminiscence of one’s own youth and earliest experiences (Poulton). It should be noted that the term “vatan” had various connotations across periods. In the mid-19th century, “vatan” would have meant, to a Turkish soldier, no more than the village square. In the late 19th century, this term implied the whole Ottoman Empire (Lewis). However, by 1911, the term signified neither Turkey nor Turkistan but the vast land of Turan (Lewis) which would be further discussed in the subsequent section. Similarly, Ali Suavi has made substantial contribution for awakening national consciousness in the state. He was characterized as a “turbaned revolutionary” and an advocate of “direct Islamic democracy.” He believed in the founding of an Islamic state where all had equal access to the ruler and subjects were ruled by the Seriat alone. Furthermore, Suavi displayed his intense devotion to patriotic cause and repeatedly used the term “Turk” and considered the Turks in Central Asia as “brothers.” In addition, he pushed for the codification of Islamic laws in Turkish and adoption of Turkish as the sole medium of instruction in Ottoman schools. (Poulton) With this, remarkable growth of a sense of Turkishness among Ottoman, particularly the intellectuals, became evident. The Turkic Émigrés Great thinkers from the Russian Empire became major players in the promotion of Turkish nationalism in the Ottoman Empire. They provided an impetus to the endorsement of pan-Turkic ideology despite the absence of clearly delineated Turkist identity (Landau). Most prominent of these Turkic émigrés is Yusuf Akcura who wrote significant pieces discussing the state of the Ottoman and how it should be improved. For instance, in “An Essay on the Historical Foundation of the Ottoman State,” he pointed out that founding of the Ottoman State as endeavored by the Young Turks would only lead to a dead-end. Akcura asserted, “Nationalism is the only road to take.” (Poulton) He also wrote the “Uc Tarz-i Siyaset” (Three Kinds of Politics), a key manifesto of Turkish nationalism, which specified three political doctrines, namely, “Osmanlilik” (idea of an Ottoman nation), “ Islamalik” (state based on Islam) and “Turkculuk” (Turkish political nationalism). Of these three concepts presented, Akcura clearly advocated ethnic nationalism in which all the Turks were impelled to unite into a one large nation state. (Poulton) According to Poulton, Akcura’s and other exiles’ support for such an ideology stems from their background in Russia. The Turks and Turkic peoples in Russia were under great threat from the assimilatory Great Russian authorities. This illustrates the theory on how nationalists often originate from different areas, especially from communities under great threat from other aggressive nationalisms. Anatolia as Turkish Heartland The notion of Anatolia being the Turkish heartland began to take hold as facilitated by the retreat in the Balkans. Albeit Anatolia as a geographical unit had not completely penetrated the Ottoman consciousness as the heartland of the empire, the concept was promoted with the Turkish peasant of Anatolia being romanticized as the quintessence of national values. (Poulton) The continuous diminishing of the Ottoman territory in the Balkans coupled with the drought in Anatolia in 1872 raised fervent reaction from the Ottoman public and aided in forming public opinion regarding the possibility of Anatolia becoming a part of the heartland of the “vatan.” This further demonstrated the supposition with regard to the significance of mixed communities and threats from other aggressive nationalisms in the enhancement of nationalist thinking. (Poulton) The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) and Outbreak of War The young officers of the CUP, which overthrew Abdulhamid in 1908 and 1909, were instrumental in arousing Turkish nationalism (Poulton). With the restoration of the constitution, ethnic and religious communities as well as communal leaders bonded and celebrated the dawn of the new era (Feroz). With this, the Young Turks paid lip service to the concepts of Ottomanism and equality of all. However, behind all this, they secretly worked at Turkish policies (Poulton). One of the primary channels for promoting this purpose is the education system. Although medium of instruction in primary schooling was permitted to be in the mother tongue, Turkish was mandated for middle and high schools. Furthermore, Turkish classes were made mandatory at all levels. The CUP programme of 1908 also made Turkish as the official language. In this regard, a law making the use of Turkish in the workplace, signages, registers and bills as compulsory. (Poulton) The outbreak of the war provided an avenue for exhibiting economic nationalism. For instance, at the onset of the Balkan war, the National Consumption Society was founded to persuade people to patronize “vatan”-produced goods in spite of the relatively higher price than imports. In addition, other measures were imposed to facilitate the creation of a Turkish capitalist class. (Poulton) Promotion of Turanism Turanism pertains to the unifying concept in which all Turkic peoples from the Balkans to China are united into one country dubbed as “Turan.” This movement is considered as the outright manifestation of ethnic nationalism. For the purpose of promoting this concept, Russian émigrés like Akcura established the publication “Turk Demegi” (Turkish Association) in November 1908 in Istanbul (Poulton). The founders explicitly stated that the Association aimed to focus only on Turcology and steer clear from political issues. The monthly paper covered myriad topics such as Turkish and Turkic language, proverbs of the Kazan Turks, handicrafts of the Turkmen, Turk literature and discovery of Turkish antiquities (Landau). Akcura also spearheaded the setting up of the leading magazine “Turk Yurdu” (Turkish Homeland) that apparently advocated pan-Turkist or non-Ottoman ideology. Simultaneously, the “Turk Ocagi” (Turkish Hearth) was instituted by Military Medical School students who sought the assistance of the intellectuals. Similarly, this is a pan-Turkist organization that believed in the importance of education in spreading such ideology. It was deemed as highly effective in the promotion of Turkish nationalism among students and the intellectual elite. (Poulton) Ziya Gokalp, who became the primary ideologue of the CUP, published the poem called “Turan”, an ode to Turanism, in 1911 in Salonika. The poem dramatically ended with: “The country of Turks is not Turkey, nor yet Turkestan. Their country is a broad everlasting land – Turan.” Conclusion The above discussion exhibits how the interplay of various factors contributed to the stimulation of the Turkish national consciousness. The awakening of nationalism in neighboring countries of the Ottoman state somehow affected the citizens’ way of thinking. Furthermore, as emphasized by Poulton, mixed communities and threats from other aggressive nationalism are deemed to critical factors in the growth of nationalist thought. Aside from these, the importance of the media in promotion of myriad ideologies is also evident. Russian émigrés as well as the Young Turks harnessed the power of the media so that their intended audience imbibed their nationalist philosophy. They emphasized terms that appeal to emotions and stir patriotism. Furthermore, they published their works in order to open the minds of the Ottoman population. Works Cited Landau, J. Pan-Turkism: From Irridentism to Cooperation. London, 1997. Lewis, B. Emergence of Modern Turkey. London, 1961. Feroz, A. “Unionist relations with the Greek, Armenian and Jewish communities of the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1914.” Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire. New York, 1982. Poulton, H. Top Hat, Grey Wolf and Crescent. London, 1997. Read More