The Basics of Computability Theory - Essay Example

 Computing Computability Theory The field of computer science deals with the idea of computability theory which looks at mathematical and logical problems by examining their solvability. In essence it examines if a problem can be positively handled by a logic machine or not. In even simpler terms, computability theory works at the very limits of computing power so while we can expect computers today to be very powerful and complex machines; there are certain limits to the problems they can solve. In certain situations, computability theory suggests that specialized computers might be required for solving specific kinds of problems. The theory of course would depend on our own definition of a computer and how a computer operates depending on its language and coding principles. Computability theory considers various models of computers but the three most popular ones are (Wikipedia, 2006): Finite State Machine Pushdown Automaton System Turning Machine The Finite State Machine is the most common computer machine model which is available to us. It has also been suggested that this is the only theoretical computer model which is realistically possible and all present computers are based more or less on this machine. This computer has a set of predefined states and methods by which transitions can take place from one state to the other. In certain situations the computer can accept data while in others it is used to output information of some kind (Wikipedia, 2006). A common desktop computer can be used as a good example of this machine type. The Pushdown machine has an advantage over the finite state machine since it can maintain a stack of tasks or commands it has to execute. As it moves from state to state it has to decide whether executions of queued tasks can take place or not during the state transition (Wikipedia, 2006). When it comes to computation beyond the limits of present computers, the idea of a Turing machine can be used which works with a string of commands but has the ability to jump back and forth between the commands. This allows the machine to handle complex problems since there are no set limits on the computational power or abilities of the machine. Artificial Intelligence The use of AI has been a goal and an objective for computer scientists as long as computers have been in existence. It seems that the eventual goal of creating an AI based computer would be to use it to create even better and more intelligent computers. The course of human history shows that we did not pick up grains of sand and create electron microscopes out of them, in fact, we created tools which were used to create better tools and so on until we got to the point where we are today. The computers we use today will be used to create AI based machines which in turn will suggest means for creating better tools. Perhaps the most detailed, intelligent, hopeful and sometimes scary look at the future of AI is presented by Ray Kurzweil’s The Age of Spiritual Machines (1999). His central focus is on machine intelligence and how it can be expected to evolve in the coming years. Kurzweil explains and shows how computational power has grown exponentially in the past few years. While it was expected that one time that no computer would be able to beat a human champion at chess, the best human player was resoundingly defeated by a computer. While Kurzweil discusses the rise of computers he also discusses their present limitations in terms of physics. In fact, computer technology may take a different direction altogether by using biological or quantum state computers but no definite viewpoint can be given on that. However, any direction that scientists or the market itself takes with the next generation of computers, the only certainty we have is that those new computers will be more powerful than our present machines by several orders of magnitude. That might also mean that there level of artificial intelligence could also be increased by allowing them to process more information in less time. It seems as if the way of making machines more intelligent is to use simple brute force and apply their mathematical abilities to make them more intelligent. A computer can perform millions of mathematical operations per second and that is the only significant advantage it has over a human being. However, that advantage is difficult to translate into strength on the Turning Test. There are variations on what can be defined as intelligence and what can be said to be sentient but it seems as if the Turing Test is a good measure of evaluation for AI despite the shortcomings associated with it. Even though no machine has actually passed the Turing Test, machine intelligence is getting close to the level where AI will simply be able to pass as a human being by using its vastly superior mathematical and logical operations abilities. Kurzweil holds the opinion that the future will create a convergence of man and machine to create the true idea of AI. At the same time, there are others who believe that machines will never be able to get the essence of humanity or behave in the ways human beings do. Ackely (2001) believes that the expectations we have had of AI have been over inflated by the ideas projected in the media and the star trek like vision of the future. The interpretation of AI as suggested by Ackley seems to come across more like HAL in 2001: A Space Odyssey rather than the informative, intelligent friend as seen by Kurzweil in his vision of the future. At the same time, there are those who think that the future will become so governed by machines and technology that there will be little or no room for human beings to participate in the world. Joy (2000) discusses his meeting with Kurzweil and other scientists and comes to the conclusion that the future may have humans as subordinates to the machines rather than the other way around. This is indeed a bleak picture but he arrives at the conclusion in a very logical and acceptable manner. Importance of Networks Computer networks form an important part of the technology that allows us to access, retrieve or edit information which is stored on other computers around the world. The importance of networks is critical because without networks there would be no realistic method by which computers could communicate with each other or transfer data between themselves. The smallest computer network can exist as a PAN (Personal Area Network) e.g. a Bluetooth connection between a mobile phone and a desktop/laptop or a WAN (Wide Area Network) as the internet which can be used to retrieve images or other date from the Hubble Telescope in space. The fundamental importance of networks comes in the form of communications between computers around the world. Without networks, the internet would be nothing more than an idea and distributed computing would never take place. Networks also allow the creation of server farms or cluster computing that combines the strength of many different processors as they work on a single problem or handle multiple problems as they are given to the network. Similarly data storage requirements can also be handled by a network especially where large files need to be stored for later retrieval. While the earliest real computer networks were used to route and handle voice calls between telephone lines, networks today are built to handle both voice and data communications. Unlike AI, this field is one of the most mature in the computer industry since the advent of wireless broadband and mobile phones has led to an explosion in how people use wireless networks and are able to communicate using computer networks of various types. It is important to note that despite the importance of networks, a network would be useless without the underlying support system of hardware, software and communication protocols which have to be defined before two computers can communicate with each other in a meaningful way. Additionally, the information on the networks, especially the internet is designed and developed for humans and computers themselves can not understand or react to the information on the internet without guidance from humans. A trained human being can efficiently use the internet to solve problems like buying something at the best possible price, making an online appointment with a doctor or booking an airline ticket but present day computers can not handle these tasks automatically. Semantic Web The semantic web is a layer of the internet which is designed to help computers understand the internet so they can present the information gathered online in a better way as well as act upon the information which is being utilized by the person using the machine. The benefits of the semantic web are enormous since a human being is much slower than a computer in terms of scanning or reading pages or comparing prices as well as weighing advantages/disadvantages. With the semantic web and future technology in place, a person could simply ask their computer to make an appointment with a doctor and the computer would scan the internet, find the nearest doctor, make an appointment depending on the person’s schedule, send the appointment data to the person’s car along with the GPS marked route to the doctor’s office. Additionally, the computer would add the appointment information on its own date book as well as other digital device or online calendar owned by the individual. Additionally, there is a tremendous amount of information available online which can not be easily understood by humans. For example, there are databases, spreadsheets and foreign language files which a computer working on the semantic web could handle easily while a human being could not. Additionally, the computer could automatically create links between the given data to present information in a meaningful format. For example, if a person wants to find the cheapest available copy of a music album, they might be able to get it from a warehouse in China where the price database shows the lowest price inclusive of shipping. If the person does not know Chinese its doubtful that they might be able to place an order while a computer which understands and can translate Chinese will certainly be able to help in placing that order. Hardware and Software The relationship between hardware and software is a symbiotic one as both need each other to exist. Hardware can be said to be the physical components of a computer as the processors, displays, keyboards, mice, printers etc. which provide means for input and output. Software is the driving force behind these elements which allows us to combine their use and get meaningful information from the data which is in a computer. Hardware is rarely changed since it usually means altering the physical state of a computer in a significant way and may require additional software to perform acceptably. On the other hand, software is changed regularly and every time a computer is turned on or some software action is performed on the computer a change in the software on the computer is likely to take place even if it is an automated alteration or iteration of the log file. It is also easier for a user to modify software since a large level of change and adaptability is present in all modern software including operating systems and productivity packages which allow a person to change the software’s look and feel as well as the language. On the other hand, it is not easy for a user to completely modify computer hardware without having extensive knowledge about the electronics inside. Common Software Programs The first and most common software program is the operating system which is the underlying software over which other software can be used. At the very heart of it, the operating system is also a compiled program but it is much more complex in the sense that it controls and governs the functioning of other software as well as the hardware which is connected to the computer. Examples of commonly used computer operating system software include Windows, Linux and OS X amongst others. The operating system is so important that it is called the environment in which the computer operates e.g. the Windows Environment or the Mac Environment. Application software is the second variety of software which might be sold as productivity packages like Microsoft Office or Star Office. These packages might include software for word processing, using spreadsheets, contact and email management, database software and web browsing tools. Additionally, application software can cover programs which have been written specifically for a particular field like biology, chemistry or mathematics. They can also be developed for a particular use of the computer as a gaming machine, music entertainment device or a home theatre component. Emerging Technologies In the current sciences, there are four fields which are commonly identified as emerging technologies. These include the technologies which result from advances in newly emerging sciences like nanotechnology, robotics and biotechnology. The key question about these technologies is their ethical use and application for the benefit of mankind rather than the search for profits and unguided uncontrolled power over the resources of the planet (Hughes, 2006). Nanotechnology and robotics is one area where extensive developments are given much attention by the media since robots have been a part of our fiction for years. Machines which function as humans based on AI concepts could improve the life of human beings significantly by performing tasks which might be too dangerous or hazardous for humans. Additionally, robots could work more precisely, without getting tired or requiring the amenities which human beings need. A robot drilling crew could dig for oil under the sea where no human could survive without prohibitive costs. Biotech on the other hand, has to do with human gene manipulation and modification to prevent and cure disease. However, it could be used to enhance humans beyond their present level of evolution and unethical use of this science could take a turn towards the ideas of eugenics and superior human beings as it did for a certain period in human history. All in all, science without ethics and rules would not be beneficial for humanity and might even be damaging. Word Count: 2,578 Works Cited Ackley, D. (2001). Artificial intelligence 2001: a disappointment? Retrieved May 19, 2006, from The Economist Website: http://www.economist.com/science/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=883645 Hughes, J. (2006). Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies. Retrieved May 19, 2006 from IEET.org website: http://ieet.org/ Joy, B. (2000). Why the future doesn't need us. Retrieved May 20, 2006, from Wired Magazine Website: http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.04/joy.html Kurzweil, R. (1999). The age of spiritual machines. Orion Business Books. Wikipedia (2006). Computability Theory (Computer Science). Retrieved May 19, 2006, from Wikipedia the free encyclopaedia website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability_theory_%28computer_science%29 Read More