Is aptitude a factor in second language acquisition - Essay Example

Essay on Aptitude in Second Language Acquisition 28 May 2007 Is aptitude a factor in second language acquisition? Aptitude is defined as being an inherent ability and a capacity for learning that goes beyond intelligence.1 It is “a combination of abilities and other characteristics, whether native or acquired, that are indicative of an individual’s ability to learn or develop proficiency in some particular area if appropriate education or training is provided”.2 Aptitude is most definitely a factor in second language acquisition (SLA). However, the importance of aptitude is also dependent on a number of other factors. It is one of the many variables which play a part in determining the speed and comprehensiveness in which an individual gains fluency in a second language. Factors such as age, education level, motivation and general intelligence are also fundamental to a person’s ability to acquire a second language. The purpose of this essay is to establish just how great a role aptitude plays in SLA and its relationship to other aspects. In order to ascertain this, I will analyze academic works on the subject, before outlining what these works reveal about the function aptitude has in gaining fluency in a second language. In his article, ‘Aptitude and Second Language Acquisition’, Peter Robinson characterizes second language (L2) learning aptitude as “strengths individual learners have – relative to their population – in the cognitive abilities information processing draws on during L2 learning and performance in various contexts and at different stages”.3 According to Robinson, neural differences, underlying abilities and SLA processes lie at a ‘subcomputational, physical’ level. (Robinson 2005, p.46) Robinson’s paper reviews the research on this subject and concludes that L2 aptitude is a result of the cognitive abilities implicated in ‘implicit’, ‘incidental’ and ‘explicit’ learning. (Robinson 2005, p.46) Robinson’s work reveals that aptitude is directly related to the environment a person finds him/herself in. There are many contexts for learning and a lot of SLA takes place on a subconscious level, hence, Robinson’s definition of the three types of learning above. Linked to the idea of subconscious learning, Bonnie D. Schwarz proposes the notion of ‘language instinct in her paper ‘The Second Language Instinct’.4 This characterizes SLA as relying on instincts, like our native language. The major difference between a native and a second language is the differences in their initial states. (Schwartz 1999, p.133) Schwartz suggests that explicit instruction and corrective feedback are often futile. While learning a second language is not merely a repetition of native language acquisition, the key factors in SLA are age and the ‘dismantling’ of our language instinct with time. (Schwartz 1999, p.134) Schwartz stresses the importance of an ‘imput rich environment’ for SLA, although she does state that if an individual resists the use of instinct, even living in the L2 country will make SLA problematic. (Schwartz 1999, pp. 155-156). Schwartz’s findings are essential for an understanding on how aptitude may be linked to the use of our subconscious. If a L2 learner can relax and allow instinct to dominate while acquiring another language then his/her level of aptitude is going to be far greater. Instinct plays a large part in aptitude, for it allows the mind to formulate and collate information unconsciously, without the constant interruption of logic. This is the greatest difference between child and adult learners. Children learn instinctively while many adults must question new information. SLA relies on a certain amount of blind faith. Jonathan Leather and Jet Van Dam, in their article ‘Towards an Ecology of Language Acquisition’, discuss the influence context and society has on SLA.5 Rather than highlighting aptitude as a playing a significant role, they present an ecological approach. Four main acquisition variables they highlight are: primary acquisition in infancy and childhood; subsequent acquisition of a new language in a new environment; instructed acquisition of a new language at school and; acquisition of a new language by the adult migrant. (Leather & Van Dam 2003, p.14) While these above variables are not exhaustive they do reveal how aptitude will play a different role in each of these situations. As previously mentioned, a child learns intuitively, therefore aptitude is going to play a lesser role than the second category whereby an individual acquires a new language in a new environment. In the second, third and fourth variables aptitude is vital to varying degrees. In the second and fourth instances, a strong degree of aptitude will determine the speed and degree to which an individual ‘absorbs’ the L2. These two situations are very similar, although a migrant’s situation is usually considerably more ‘serious’ than say, a young adult who has decided to spend a year abroad learning a new language. A cultural factor plays a part in the migrant’s perspective as the level at which a new migrant ‘embraces’ their new home’s culture, is often directly related to the speed of SLA. As Leather and Van Dam highlight, “the interplay of practical circumstances and sociocultural factors with the individual personality” will prove important factors. (Leather & Van Dam 2003, p.17) In addition, they highlight the major difference between the second and fourth variables: Young professionals aiming to further their careers overseas and individuals drawn from other societies through marriage are more obviously motivated to master the new language than traumatized refugees from war or persecution who above all else seek physical security. (Leather & Van Dam 2003, p.17) The third variable, of instructed acquisition in a language school is more subjective when rating the importance of aptitude. Surely, a student who learns intuitively and who does not try to overanalyze the new information presented by an instructor will find a smoother route to fluency. However, classroom dynamics are an important factor is SLA. The relationship between the student and teacher and between the students themselves can hinder or facilitate SLA. Here, ‘chemistry’ comes into play. As Leather and Van Dam note, “the classroom setting can bootstrap (kill) student motivation to ‘live’ the new language”. (Leather & Van Dam 2003, p.17) They go on to note that some unorthodox, atypical or old-fashioned teaching methods can involve students while the use of hi-tech media could just bore them. (Leather & Van Dam, p.17) In their paper, ‘Initial Knowledge and Conceptual Change: Space and Number’, Elizabeth S. Spelke and Sanna Tsivkin discuss the issue of how much of our knowledge is innate and a universal characteristic of our species.6 According to Spelke and Tsivkin, “humans are endowed with domain-specific, core cognitive systems around which elaborated knowledge grows”. (Spelke & Tsivkin 2001, p.70) They suggest we are endowed with a set of core systems of knowledge but that these systems have ‘critical limitations’, these being: ‘domain specific’, ‘task-specific’, ‘informationally encapsulated’, ‘autonomous’ and ‘isolated’. (Spelke & Tsivkin 2001, p.70) This approach argues that although we are born with innate knowledge, the level at which we are able to tap into this knowledge and use it in our cognitive development is directly related to where we are, what we are doing, the information we receive and the size and isolation of the social group to which we belong. Spelke and Tsivkin argue that a subset of human cognitive systems are task-specific, informationally encapsulated and autonomous, and as such early cognitive development provides considerable evidence that the prelinguistic child’s concepts and reasoning are subserved by cognitive systems. This suggests that a child does not have just one language of thought, but many. (Spelke & Tsivkin 2001, pp. 90-91) If this is the case for children, then surely, we as adults have a set of languages of thought and those of us who are able to utilize this have a higher level of aptitude than others. On the subject of innate versus learned knowledge, Ken Wexler argues against the traditional view of experience-dependent properties of language in his paper ‘Very Early Parameter Setting and the Unique Checking Constraint: A New Explanation of the Optional Infinitive Stage’.7 Wexler disagrees with the standard view of grammatical development that “the aspect of grammar that are learned are the ones to develop slowly, and that the aspects of grammar that are innate are present very early”. (Wexler 1999, p.24) Wexler reveals that this ‘Late Learning Early Emergence’ hypothesizes that properties of grammar just ‘emerge’ - having been encoded in the genetic system underlying language - and that experience-dependent grammatical forms emerge late. Wexler disagrees with this view and states that learning does not always take time and that non-learned aspects of language need not always emerge early. (Wexler 1999, p.24) Wexler makes some interesting points on the theory of learning, namely the theory of negative evidence, whereby children do not learn from corrections by adults. Wexler concluded from this that there “must be innate specification of some linguistic structures” within children. (Wexler 1999, p.31) He also notes that children engage in a kind of ‘perceptual learning’, rather than behavioural learning. Such learning is based on what an individual perceives visually and is also the basis for the setting of linguistic parameters. (Wexler 1999, p.31) Using the theories of developmental psycholinguistics, Wexler argues that syntax is learned very early; hence SLA is not a question of aptitude but rather a “genetic programming underlying language growth”. (Wexler 1999, pp. 74-75) The five sources I have analyzed encapsulate the following views on aptitude: that neural differences, underlying abilities and SLA processes lie at a ‘subcomputational’ physical level; that SLA can be broken down into implicit, incidental and explicit learning; that the context, or environment in which a L2 is learned is directly related to the ease and speed of SLA; that explicit instruction and corrective feedback are not as useful as relying on our natural second language instinct; that our species has innate knowledge characteristics and a set core of systems around which elaborate knowledge grows; that learning is not always related to ‘putting in the time’ as non-learned aspects can emerge at any age; and that SLA is more a question of genetic programming underlying language growth. While the above views all have merit, aptitude is not easy to quantify. Many of the papers stress the importance of instinct and the subconscious in SLA. However, we do not all use instinct and innate knowledge at the same level. Whereas most children live instinctively, it seems (as Schwartz notes) this innate knowledge appears to dismantle with age. Hence, the degree to which an adult uses instinct when learning a second language is highly variable. Is the amount of ‘second language instinct’ employed by an adult learner, part of what constitutes aptitude? Perhaps, for the very nature of aptitude is its dependency on other elements. Over analyzing and striving to understand something which does not follow logic (as many language rules do not) can definitely hinder SLA and, as such, I would highlight instinct and innate knowledge as a fundamental element of aptitude and, as such, important to second language acquisition. The sources used in this essay also reiterate the importance of context and environment. This is an important factor which can affect the aptitude a student has in SLA. One can learn a language far faster if one is living in the country where the language is spoken. The speed of SLA increases once again if one lives with a local family, and again if they do not speak your native language. In such a context, there is a high level of ‘incidental’ learning. There are so many stimuli in a ‘full-immersion’ environment that initially the language learner can feel ‘over-loaded’. Here, an individual’s ‘aptitude’ can be seen in relation to being able to ‘relax’ his/her mind and allow instinct to play a larger part. At the early stages SLA can appear like a jigsaw puzzle, filled with hundreds of tiny pieces all jostling to find their place. Aptitude in relation to context or environment is also dependent on many other variables. Some students thrive in a classroom setting, especially if they find an empathetic teacher and have a good rapport with the other students while others find classroom learning boring and oppressive. In this sense, defining aptitude becomes problematic as natural ability, when it comes to SLA, can take many forms. Aptitude can also be affected by more personal variables. Personal circumstance and stress play an important role in SLA. Even if a person has a strong natural ability, this can be hindered by the conditions he/she finds him/herself in. For instance, a young adult who goes to Spain for a year in order to enjoy the culture and learn the language is in a completely different frame of mind from a migrant who arrives in Spain, escaping persecution and war in their home country. Whereas the first individual knows he/she will be going home in a year and so can relax into the experience, the second individual is forced to be there by circumstance. Depending on his/her attitude, this necessity can spur the migrant into fully integrating, or it can cause him/her to retreat from the culture of his/her new home and seek out other speakers of his/her language to socialize with or work for. This brings us to another vital point which can affect aptitude and that is attitude. None of the sources used discuss this factor but it is vital nonetheless. An individual with natural aptitude should be able to learn a second language with ease; however if the motivation is not there, no amount of aptitude will serve. This is often the case with teenage language learners. Poor grades are not so much evidence of lack of aptitude but lack of motivation. If you enjoy a subject you are often naturally good at it. This reveals how motivation and aptitude are directly linked. As stated above, if a migrant, forced to move to another country out of circumstance, resists the host culture and language, his/her natural ability can be suppressed. However, it would be too simplistic to cite aptitude as needing to work in tandem with motivation and in order to achieve SLA success. Language learning is an intuitive, complex process and there are many students who, although highly motivated and interested in learning a new language, struggle to learn. I would disagree with Schwartz’s assertion that explicit instruction and corrective feedback are futile to SLA. High-quality instruction and constructive feedback are highly valuable tools in second language learning. Of course, the attitude and receptiveness of the student is related to the success this method has, but if a student is open-minded and able to take advice away with them and work on the suggestions made, SLA aptitude can increase ten-fold. To conclude, it must bear repeating that aptitude does indeed play an important role in SLA. However, the discussion and analysis of the five sources used in this essay and my own interpretation of the subject reveal that aptitude does not stand alone. Aptitude is strongly linked to our use of intuition and trust in our own innate abilities, it is dependent on the context in which we learn and the motivation we have. Aptitude also depends on our own learning style and our own ability to assess and quantify our progress. While aptitude is defined as being separate from intelligence it is extremely difficult to isolate for while a person may have aptitude in one subject, he/she may lack it in another. It is difficult to acquire a second language successfully if you lack any aptitude but it is not impossible. As, due to the complexity of the human mind, even if natural ability is lacking it is then up to the individual to make a choice as too how hard they are willing to work in order to become fluent in a second language. Works Cited Leather, J. & Van Dam J. 2003, ‘Towards an Ecology of Language Acquisition’, Ecology of Language Acquisition, Leather, J. & Van Dam J (eds), Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands. Robinson, P. 2005, ‘Aptitude and Second Language Acquisition’, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, vol.25, pp. 46-73, Cambridge University Press. Schwartz, B.D. 1999, ‘The Second Language Instinct’, Language Acquisition: Knowledge Representation and Processing – Lingua, 106 pp. 133-160, Sorace, A., Heycock, C. & Shillcock, R. (eds), North Holland, Amsterdam. Spelke, E.S & Tsivkin, S. 2001, ‘Initial Knowledge and Conceptual Change – Space and Number’, Language Acquisition and Conceptual Development, Bowerman, M., & Levinson, S.C. (eds), Cambridge University Press. Wexler, K. 1999, ‘Very Early Parameter Setting and the Unique Checking Constraint: A New Explanation of the Optional Infinitive Stage’, Language Acquisition: Knowledge Representation and Processing, Sorace, A., Heycock, C. & Shillcock, R (eds), North Holland, Amsterdam. Read More