Geographies of Exclusion and Inequality - Case Study Example

Introduction A great percentage of human behaviour does not occur as a result of individual liking. Instead it is directed by al norms, conventions and rules which have powerful effect on individuals’ lives. Institutions at times are defined as the “rules of the game” in a community. These may be unwritten or written, implicit or explicit, mandated through policy, codified by the law, sanctified via religion, upheld through convention or embodied in family or community standards. They play a very important role in determining individual behaviour concerning what is allowed and what is not allowed, for example economically; They impact the gender labour division in terms of reproduction and production in various regions of the world; and Result in distinct regional patterns in terms of labour force involvement and economically activity by men and women (Vanderbeck & Dunkley, 2006) Regional perception on gender inequality Gender inequality differs in relation to regions, which implies“geography” of gender; this reflects methodical regional distinction in; 1. The family and kinship institutions 2. The household models they have resulted to; and 3. The related gender division of responsibilities and resources These aspects have resulted to regional differences in relation to division of labour of gender in relation to reproduction and production, paid labour and unpaid labour, and in domestic and public spheres. Vanderbeck & Dunkley (2006) states that, the different values, norms and rules governing the gender in terms of division of labour and gender sharing of responsibilities, resources and power are significant elements in understanding the manner of inequality of gender in different regions and societies. Geographical differences mean that men and women take part in their national or regional economic activities differently from one another. More so these differences differ across the world. Two major factors are specifically significant in determining at which extent women take part in the main economic activities and their reach valued social resources; 1. How resources in the household financial system are organized, the level in which efforts and resources are directed and shared on a mutual bases 2. How inflexible the “public private” segregate is, thus affecting the degree of the women in terms of public movement and opportunities for straight economic participation (Vanderbeck & Dunkley, 2006) Research form various social sciences subjects hints that there are different household variations which are associated with specific “regional patriarchies”. These basically concerns land inherences, economic activities, welfare outcomes and marital practices. (Vanderbeck & Dunkley, 2006) Geographical gender inequality in Asia The most pronounced type of gender inequality in Asia is related with governments which are extremely patriarchy. These regimes also include those found in North Africa western Asia and East Asia. These countries have a clear different history and culture but they share similarities in terms of woman economic activity. Family structures and kinship in these countries are mostly patrilineal; marriages seem to be exogamous and also “patrilocal” where women marry out of their community. Household in these regions are organized alongside high corporate values, with conjugal bonds and cultural values being stressed. Household economy are pooled but controlled but the man, he his supposed to take care of the woman and the children. (Rodgers and Figueiredo, 1995) Female chastity is highly emphasized as and those who transgress are punished severely, this is seen as important in ensuring that property is inherited on the basis of biological fatherhood. Female seclusion is practiced in these countries which are also done by the Hindu on the basis of castes. Restrictions that have been placed on female mobility, patrilineal inheritance and controlling of household economy by the man has lead to economic depression of women in these regions and they highly depend on men. These regions experience some of the highest gender inequalities levels in relation to other parts of the world. (Rodgers and Figueiredo, 1995) Regional perception on race inequality The geographical race inequality exists in many different places of the world where racial discrimination laws and culture persisted to for a long time. As observed earlier human behavior in particularly affected by the laws and norms that the society creates which in turn affects the whole system of the society. (Rodgers and Figueiredo, 1995) Regional race inequality in South Africa The history of race inequality can be best explained in modern world when reviewing America as a geographic region and also South Africa and other regions. These countries have the highest race inequality in the modern world. In particular south Africa race inequality is the highest because the according to research done in the country the whites controls around 40% of the country’s wealth yet there are not more than 18% in terms of population. This is very big racial inequality in terms of economic power and which is the most important in a country. Today, race inequality remains geographically high in different regions; the region that has a high race inequality is Johannesburg because of patterns of segregation in residential that were formulated during the apartheid era. The present removal of social housing segregation has not done much in reducing the geographical inequality in Johannesburg (Beall and Parnell, 2000) more so regional race inequality is not ending but it is just changing its appearance. Beall and Parnell(2000) points out that in post –apartheid South Africa, regional race inequality is being driven by two main income gasps, among multi-racial middle class and the unemployed Africans. (Beall and Parnell, 2000) Racial in America and other Latin American countries Looking at the issue of racial development and ethnic identity in these regions, race inequality have been denied in these country under the context that the countries in these regions are “post- racial” race inequality which is recognized is thought to be because partial processes of national integration or because of class-based inequality in these regions. It is also thought that in Latin America, racial inequality is less pronounced than in united America. (Beall and Parnell, 2000) Regional race inequality This is the outcome of South Africa and America segregation policies together with poor labor laws which denied the African and the black better job opportunities. In looking at South Africa the segregation laws resulted in the families being split other going across the urban divide and others remained in the rural areas “home land”. At the same time the welfare policies that were enacted during this period did not take care of any social care for the Africans and they were excluded from government social welfare programs. This concept of racial segregation of the blacks leads to; 1. Social and economic disadvantages of the African in the country 2. Poverty mainly to the black African community Imposed forms of race disadvantage These mirrors the biases, misinformation and preconceptions of those who are outside concerned race but who have the power of allocating the resources of the nation on the bases of races. These institutional players may actively replicate and reinforce race based inequality; examples include; 1. Organizations who refuse to employee certain race or only employee them under stereotype thus in most cases underpaying them 2. Labor unions and other professional bodies which outline their membership regulations in a manner that dishearten the membership of black workers and professionals 3. Not for profit organizations that treat blacks and Africans in South Africa as dependent clients instead of treating them as active agents. 4. Financial institutions such as banks which turn down requests to lend money to blacks in America and African in South Africa, because of prejudging them as be credit risk. (Beall and Parnell, 2000) America is a racial and ethnical diverse region having women and men, European and afro descendents, non-indigenous and indigenous communities actively striving for a higher living for both themselves and their families. Nevertheless, standards of living are unequal among the races and the ethnic groups in this region. The levels of such inequality in the living standards and the reasons behind such disparities have drawn different studies to focus on regions and country inequality. Beall and Parnell (2000) observe that across the different regions in America black’s economic earnings and paid work participation are basically lower than those of other races. (Beall and Parnell, 2000) Sexuality Perceptions of sexual harassment There are different perceptions that exist in the world concerning Sexuality .Research shows that geography plays a big role in influencing individual’s perceptions on sexuality matters. Individual who come from the western countries are more likely to be receptive behaviours that are sexually toned because at this culture and norms. While on the other hand individual who come in Middle East regions and Asian countries are who likely to condone behaviour that is sexually toned. Surveys carried out all over the world reveal that western individual have more chances of perceiving moderate and mild behaviour that is sexually toned. On the other hand individuals coming from Middle East treat sexuality issues with a lot of privacy. Such surveys carried out reveal a strong correlation between regions and perceptions on sexuality. Geographical view or sexuality Sexuality has existed throughout all through regions. Research shows that sexuality subject has gone through a broad range measures since early 1970’s. This has been at the local levels and also at the international level. At the international level, this issue has been addressed on different levels. As on regional level the issue has been discussed and different policies values and norms adopted depending on the regions or country’s perspective. There has been enactment of various legislations to control sexuality especially in women. A best example is Age of consent; this is termed as age of consent, which underlines the lowest age a person can legally make an informed sexual consent. This age limit varies according to different countries. In United States the consent age is between 16 to 18 years in many states. Perception sexuality in America and Middle East Sexuality is all about forming believes and attitudes about sex. It also encompasses acquiring information about intimacy, sexual identity and relationships. Sexuality differs in different regions and there seem to be a pronounced difference between the western region and the Middle East. Regional perception of sexuality is brought about by the culture policies and norms of different regions and countries. Mishra (1999) observers that, human just like other primates use sexuality as means of reproduction and for maintaining social bond among the societies, however, child sexuality is very common in our western societies, in the late stage of 19th century, the panic about what was referred as “self abuse” or masturbation amongst young adolescents reached its highest point. While “self abuse” in America is seen as normally, in countries which are found in Middle East and Africa, view “self abuse” as very bad sexual behaviour which needs to be punished or highly condemned. (Mishra, 1999) The western culture for instance tends to really accelerate sexuality. This is because it has high liberalism with people freely watching internet pornography at the. Such characters of western culture like watching internet pornography affect the emotions of individual and hence enhance sexuality knowledge. In the Middle East region watching of pornography movies is highly restricted which also limited the knowledge of the people in those countries concerning sexuality issue. Thus there is a high inequality in terms of sexuality inequality in these two regions. (Mishra, 1999) Conclusion Regional differences affect the culture and the values of an individual in those regions, depending on the specific region one comes from the laws, norms and values of that region or country will determine how the individual behaves. Though, human beings interact with others from different regions and cultures, their individual behaviour do not change much. Gender, sexuality and race are among the aspects that reflect inequality depending on the regions of individuals. In the Middle East and Asian countries, gender and sexuality inequality among men and women is high pronounced in western countries. On the other hand race inequality is higher in America, Latin America, and South Africa, this is due to the policies in these regions which contributed to inequality in this regions. However, as the world undergoes globalization and regions and cultures are becoming more closely integrated and this will go along way in reducing the regional inequalities being witnessed today. Reference: Beall, J., O. C and Parnell, S (2000): Journal of Economic and Social Geography, Vol. 91, No. 4, pp. 379-396. Castells, M., (1978): City Class and Power, London, the Macmillan Press. Mishra, R. (1999): Beyond the Nation State, Social Policy in an Age of Globalization” in Trans-national Social Policy, Blackwell, Oxford Rodgers, G., C. and Figueiredo, J.B (1995): Social Exclusion: Rhetoric, Reality, Responses, International Institute of Labour Studies Vanderbeck, R & Dunkley, C.M (2006): Introduction: geographies of exclusion, inclusion and belonging in young lives Publisher: Routledge, Read More