Importance of a Sound Knowledge of Social Policy - Essay Example

THE IMPORTANCE OF A SOUND KNOWLEDGE OF SOCIAL POLICY FOR EFFECTIVE SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE Introduction Social work has been defined as a profession that empowers and liberates people to enhance their well-being, promotes change and solves problems in human relationships (Lishman, 2007). Universally, social work focuses on rights, inequalities, social justice, and the exercise of professional and political power. The central mission of social work is to “enable all people to develop to their full potential, enrich their lives and prevent dysfunction” (IASSW, 2001). Social policy in relation to social work deals with human rights and social justice and form a positive instrument of change, “an unpredictable, incalculable part of the whole political process” (Titmuss, 1974). Implementing social policy consists of using the rules and regulations of governments to directly impact the welfare of citizens by providing them with income or services such as social insurance, public assistance, healthcare, welfare services and adequate housing (Marshall, 1965). This paper proposes to evaluate the importance of social policy for effective social work practice. The relationship between social policy and social work, the influences of political processes, the application of social policy and theory to a range of current social issues and problems especially related to social inclusion and welfare rights will be identified. Discussion Historical Background of Social Policy in Relation to Social Work: The concept of the government taking responsibility for the citizens’ problems has a long history, though the term welfare state has come into use only since 1941. In Britain in 1942, William Beveridge published Social Insurance and Allied Services commonly known as the Beveridge Report. This seminal document was crucial in turning Great Britain into a welfare state (Macarov, 1995). Labour elected in July 1945 established a new welfare system by implementing the main proposals of William Beveridge’s path-breaking report. Labour replaced the multitude of schemes for the unemployed, the old and the sick with a single unified scheme which essentially remains to this day. Other than for pensions, the Act was less generous than what had been advocated by Beveridge. The low levels of benefit caused many people to rely on National Assistance “because retirement, unemployment and insurance benefits were pitched too low and did not provide separately for housing costs” (Brivati & Bale, 1997). The new National Health Service (NHS) which gave the medical profession representation and control over spending resulted in spiralling costs in the late 1940s. Comparatively, education policy as the 1944 Education Act made secondary schooling compulsory and raised the school leaving age to 15. The First Way as expressed by the U.K. conservative party under Margaret Thatcher is regarded as the individualism and the liberalism of the New Right. The Second Way meant traditional social democracy. The most recent perspective to emerge in politics and social policy is the Third Way which underlies the policies of Tony Blair’s New Labour government first elected in 1997. The Third Way combines the best elements of the First and Second Ways’ ideologies since they have weaknesses as well as strong points. Among other policies, the Third Way emphasizes equal rights and opportunities and anti-discriminatory policies, reflecting the social democratic approach to citizenship. Employment and training with priority for the sections most in need such as long-term unemployed, young unemployed, and sinlge mothers; state benefits in the shape of lowered taxes for those who moved from benefit into work to eliminate the poverty trap, and raising healthcare standards through increased private healthcare system to supplement the NHS facilities (Moore, 2002). Contemporary Social Work Practice Based on Social Policy in Scotland: Increasingly, poverty, unemployment, poor health, disablement, lack of education and other sources of disadvantage, lead to marginalisation, isolation and exclusion and require the help of social work services (QAA, 2000). Across Britain reorganization of social work services has been based on the creation of unified departments at the local authority level, who administer most of the personal social services (Smith, 1980). Contemporary social welfare policy, practice and legislation, and their related social, political and economic challenges impact social work practice to evolve, adapt and change accordingly (QAA, 2000). Building capacity to deliver increasingly personalized social work services, Scotland has some of the most innovative projects in Europe in the use of sport to promote the social inclusion of disabled people; Children 1st is a programme which reduces offending behaviour and homelessness; locally helps people with learning difficulties; programmes to build resilience in children of parents addicted to substance misuse; volunteering to help children with reading difficulties, and several other supportive interventions (21st Century Social Work Review, 2006). Relationship Between Social Policy and Political Processes: To analyse practically and realistically the politics of social policy, four models presented by Hill (2003) are: pluralism, elitism, economic determinism and institutionalism. Pluralism is the nearest to a true democracy; but the purpose of pluralism is undermined by inequalities in competition and interests. Elitism is advocated by the radical critics of pluralism, and is composed of conflicting theories explaining the uneven distribution of power. Economic determinism as expressed in the theory of Marxism states that power is concentrated in the hands of the elite. The institutionalist theory views the implementation process of social policy by publicly employed officials as creating policy (Hill, 2003). Until 1998, the politics of social policy in the United Kingdom was comparatively simple because of a unitary system of government. In 1998 far-reaching political devolution began taking place especially to the new government in Scotland. A crucial aspect of the British system is that social policy in relation to education, personal social services and housing pertain to the local government which derives its powers from the central government (Hill, 2003). Devolution and Policy Changes in Scotland: Scottish devolution began in the 1880s, to convert the United Kingdom into a Union of self-governing nations. Today Scottish devolution continues as part of a movement across Europe that is transforming the location of power and patterns of public policy (Keating, 2005). Anti-poverty policy in Scotland was impacted by the introduction of devolution. The crucial reserved and devolved areas relevant to tackling poverty are: education, health, housing, social work, and economic development. None of the devolved administrations have control over the reserved policy areas such as the tax benefit system or employment legislation, which are two significant areas relating to poverty and social exclusion (Mooney & Scott, 2005). There have been differences between the nations composing the United Kingdom in terms of policies such as free personal care for the elderly, the abolition of pre-paid tuition fees in Scotland and strategies to contend with child poverty. In Scotland, there is an uneven but greater stress on social inclusion as opposed to exclusion, on partnership, equality and most significantly on social justice (Stewart, 2004). Social Policy and Theory Relevant to Current Social Issues: Welfare Rights: The service user’s potential need for social care can be understood in terms of Jonathan Bradshaw’s (1972) taxonomy of need (Davies, 2000), which defines social need in four different ways: 1. Normative need is need in any given situation. It is not absolute and is likely to change with change in standards of living, development of knowledge and evolution of political values. 2. Felt need is that related to want. Through surveys, potential service users can be asked to describe their attitudes towards unmet needs. 3. Expressed need or demand is felt need translated into action. In the commercial context, expressed need is what people are willing to pay for, but in the non-market setting of public welfare, it can be measured as a spontaneous demand or response from potential service users. 4. Comparative need is a commonly evaluated concept in social policy. “If people with similar characteristics are not in receipt of a service then they are in need” (Davies, 2000). According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1954), basic needs for survival and safety must be met before an individual can move on to fulfilling the need for love, belonging and self-esteem. “The highest need for self-actualization and personal growth can only be fulfilled when all other needs have been met” (Davies, 2000: 249). Meeting the basic needs of individuals is often the priority of social work practice, especially in dealing with mental health patients. Why Universalism is Required: A continuing dilemma for social policy is regarding the structuring of services so that benefits are obtained by all, but more are given to those who need them most, and maintaining the balance without losing political support for the taxes that have to be financed by the public for the services. According to Titmuss, universalism is an essential requirement for achieving selective positive discrimination. The real challenge is to develop an underlying framework of universal services which aims to discriminate positively with socially acceptable selective services which are woven into the framework (Titmuss & Alcock, 2001). Welfare legislation: Some important welfare policies and legislation are as follows: 1.Community Care Legislation governs the provision of services including equipment and adaptations by local authority social work services. 2.Community care assessment: Social Work [Scotland] Act 1968, s.12A. Section 12A contains a duty to assess a person aged at least eighteen years who appears to may be in need of community care services (which include equipment and adaptations) and for whom the local authority should provide such services. The local authority must then decide whether the needs of that person call for the provision of any such services. 3.If a person is disabled: Social Work (Scotland) Act 1968, s.12A. If during a community care assessment, it appears that the person is disabled, then a decision must be made about the services the person requires under section four of the Disabled Persons [Services, Representation and Consultation] Act 1986 (which refers back to s.2 of the Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Act 1970). The person must be informed about the assessment and what his or her rights are under the 1986 Act. 4.Taking account of the views of clients and carers: Social Work [Scotland] Act 1968, s.12A. In deciding about what services to provide, the local authority must also take account, to the extent practicable and reasonable, of the views of the person being assessed. In addition, where it appears that a carer is providing a substantial amount of care on a regular basis, then the local authority must consider the care being provided and the views of the carer (The Scottish Govt. Publications, 2008). Social security benefits such as those for Care leavers were introduced in the United Kingdom under the Children Leaving Care Act 2000 and came into force in October 2001. There has been a measurable improvement in the outcomes for care leavers since that Act came into force: young people in Scotland remain in care longer and when they leave care, councils are staying in touch with them (Draft Children Leaving Care, 2004). Human Rights: Global citizenship increasingly impacts national and individual citizenship. There is a drive on the political aspect of human rights concept as well as a growing use of human rights litigations in judiciaries both regional and international , by individuals, “class acts” and international agencies. Example of regional judiciary is the European court of Human Rights, and example of international judiciary is the International War Crimes Tribunals. Hence, “people’s membership in supra-state polities is therefore, like in states, partly direct and individual, and to a great extent mediated by their membership in other collectivities and states” (Anthias & Lloyd, 2002: 57). The Human Rights Act 1998 has, since October 2000, incorporated the European Convention on Human Rights into United Kingdom law. The Convention contains a number of important rights capable of beneficially impacting decision making by public bodies in health care, social care and housing generally, including decisions about equipment and adaptations. Examples are: article 3 states that people have a right not to be subjected to inhuman or degrading treatment, article 8 that there be a right to respect for home, family life and privacy and correspondence, and article 14 that there be freedom from discrimination. Further, the policy Protection of health and protection of the rights and freedoms of others is also significant in social work. For example, a decision to offer a person care only in a care home, instead of personal assistance, equipment and adaptations in their own home, might be justifiable under article 8 on the grounds that this was genuinely the only way of meeting the persons health needs (The Scottish Govt. Publications on Human Rights, 2008). Disability and race discrimination legislation: The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 and Race Relations Act 1976, as amended by the Race Relations [Amendment] Act 2000. Also, local authority and NHS equipment and adaptation services are subject to the various duties contained in these Acts. Legal issues concerning discrimination can also arise under article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights, including age discrimination, which unlike race, disability and gender discrimination, is not covered by other legislation. The Scottish government’s policy Better Business: A Strategy and Action Plan for Social Enterprise in Scotland aims to achieve a sustainable and credible way of doing business, delivering services and actively improving our communities. This generates economic and environmental benefits to the individual and the community (ESEP, 2007). Social justice: This is considered in relation with the concept of equality. Treating people equally implies civil and political liberties, equal rights before the law, equal protection against arbitrary arrest, etc, all of which are important factors for a civil society composed of equal citizens. People are likely to use their freedom and their rights incompletely if they are poor, ill or uneducated; which in turn impact employment opportunities, personal fulfilment and people’s abilities to improve their life chances. For meeting primary needs, access to basic resources is crucial. These are provided by the welfare state (Pierson & Geoffrey, 2006). The Scottish government’s policy statement People and Place links social justice, regeneration and economic growth. The economic, social, physical and environmental aspects of regeneration requires an integrated approach which combines planning and delivery across these aspects, so that change is mutually reinforcing (ESEP, 2007). Social Exclusion: Economic and social inequality have risen over the last few decades in the United Kingdom (Lister, 2004). Scotland’s minority ethnic groups are some of the most vulnerabe to poverty, racial discrimination and harassment; hence some of the policy implications arising out of the 2001 Census are important. Similarly significant are policy issues related to three other matters: mechanisms for addressing racism and racial equality issues, the extent to which social inclusion practices have addressed racism as an exclusionary factor, and the need to recruit skilled labour in Scotland. The concept of social exclusion rather than social inequality informs anti-poverty policy (Mooney & Scott, 2005: 136). According to Alvey (2000), while Scottish policy on housing and inclusion successfully alleviates some aspects of deprivation, the policy is not successful in getting improved outcomes by directly dealing with the processes that produce these results. The author believes that the concept of social exclusion cannot be used as the basis for policy formulation. The Context of Inclusion: Social inclusion is mainly dependent upon entering paid employment, hence social policy towards increased employment opportunities could act as a tool for achieving greater social inclusion of the poorest sections of society. Further, the stress upon responsibilities and duties has come to be a consistent feature of many social and welfare policies. This in turn is related to the idea of the greater good, that individuals have important duties to family, community and to society as a whole (Mooney & Scott, 2005). The Scottish government’s social inclusion policy is about reducing inequalities and ensuring that support reaches those who need it most. Closing the Opportunity Gap is the Scottish executive strategy to tackle poverty and disadvantage by two methods: 1. Promoting community regeneration of the most deprived neighbourhoods through improvements in the quality of the local environment, employability, education, health, and access to local services. 2. Improving social service delivery to rural areas, remote and disadvantaged communities for promoting better access to key services. Another Scottish social inclusion policy is The Social Inclusion vision for the Lowlands and Uplands which ensures that economic growth and tackling exclusion operate together, and also helps people to overcome several barriers to employment and realise their full potential (ESEP, 2007). Conclusion This paper has highlighted the importance of a sound knowledge of social policy for effectively recognizing and challenging oppression, stigma and other forms of inequality and disadvantage in the lives of service users, their households, groups and communities. The basic education of social workers requires the study of social policy and administration towards effective integration of the individual with the community (Titmuss, 1976). Changes brought about by devolution of governmental powers to Scotland are considered. The formulation and implementation of policies relating to current social issues such as racism, human rights, social inclusion, welfare rights, and social justice are found to be central to social work. The European supra-state legislation regarding human rights, socio-political processes and their role in formulating social policy and implementation of the same have been discussed. It is recognized that need is the core issue underlying social welfare, the significance of Bradshaw’s taxonomy of need and Maslow’s hierarchy of need for formulating social policy, and social welfare measures based on Titmuss’s theory of universalism versus selection are evaluated. Traditionally, progressive politicians have envisioned a different Scotland around “public health, decent housing, the right to education, to work, fairness at work and universal suffrage” (Social Justice, 2006: 1). 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