Role of Culture in Cognitive Development - Essay Example

Role of Culture in Cognitive Development Introduction The environment and the immediate proximity of audio-visual and other sensory inputs into a newborn elicit the instinctive responses which become more consistent, refined and acquire certain typical features with advances in age and biological development. The pre-existing cultural influences prevalent in the immediate vicinity thus assume great significance in cognitive development of an individual as well as the social group of which he or she is a member. The Earth is a nurse to the wide variety of human populations located in all sorts of geographical locales and climes which impart their own peculiar characteristics to them. The human race is one of the most intelligent life forms which more or less follows certain uniform tenets of life all over the world but cannot escape the colour imparted by various factors which lend them unique identities which are easily discernible. Thus we can easily differentiate human populations on the basis of an already established classification of Caucasians, Mongols, Latinas, Afros, Asians, etc. All continents and their constituent countries harbour unique cultures which exert a strong influence on the cognitive development of people born and brought up in a particular location. Religion is a creation of the human psyche and exerts a heavy influence on the cultural practices and development of the overall personality of an individual belonging to a particular sect or congregation. This is the reason why diverse faiths have developed in different geographical locales where the local intelligentsia have formed their own concepts and notions of God and created a society which has to adhere to the locally established concepts, norms and way of life in general. There are others who have totally disregarded the existence of God and lead their life according to a set of social, cultural and economic norms which they find essential for a fruitful and sustainable life pattern. From the above facts we can conclude that it is not possible to ignore the influence of diverse cultural practices on the cognitive patterns in human development. Cognitive Development Cognitive development of the animal begins from birth itself when a new born becomes aware of its senses of vision, touch, smell, pain and hunger. Other developments are dependent on the species and its limitations. Primitive animals like insects, ants, fish, amphibians, etc. have predefined instinctive impulses which they follow like clockwork till the culmination of life. Semi intelligent and more intelligent animal forms like dogs, cats, lions, dolphins, whales and sub-human primates have a relatively high degree of intelligence which guides their life pattern wherein they are capable of making choices as well as social contact within their own species and also with human beings who have the ability to coax them into following various verbal and visual commands. Human beings are exclusive and extremely intelligent creatures on the face of the planet Earth. Their cognitive development involves a highly intricate and developed brain which is capable of tasks which are near impossible for sub human species. Advances in science and mathematics are the wonders of the human brain which has lead to the formation of society, cultures, creeds and countries in a highly organized manner which is a stupendous feat as compared to the lesser animals. The human species has tamed almost all the possible resources, animals, animate and inanimate objects which are present on the face of the planet. The influence of culture on cognitive development has been widely studied by numerous psychologists and sociologists. According to Tomasello Michael, 2000, human beings are naturally adapted for culture in special ways which are different from those of sub human primates which has been substantiated by research on the matter. He believes that human adaptation for culture begins as early as after attaining one year of age in an individual when a human infant recognises other persons as intentional agents like self and engages in intentional interactions with them. These interactions lead to accumulation of wisdom in the young minds by employing unique and powerful forms of cultural learning. Two of the most widely accepted theories of cognitive development are those of Piaget and Vygotsky (Solso, R.L., 1995). According to Piaget’s theory cognitive development should be studied using a biological perspective. He proposed that two major principles operate in intellectual growth and development: adaptation and organization. By adaptation Piaget means that human beings aim at achieving a balance between what one believes and what one actually experiences in his lifetime to arrive at a certain balanced notion of one’s perspective about a certain matter. This state of cognitive balance or equilibration is the innate desire of the human psyche by adaptation. Adaptation is achieved by the processes of assimilation or accommodation. Assimilation involves incorporation of newly acquired information into previously existing scheme of things. For example when a child encounters an automobile for the first time he incorporates it into his or her existing schema of modes of transportation if there has been a prior exposure to autos. Accommodation is explained as formation of new mental images in the mind when there has not been any exposure in the past. The example is when a child sees an aeroplane for the first time and that fits into a new representation in the mind, of transport machines which are capable of flight. Piaget believes that the mind has a natural tendency to organize information into related, interconnected structures. He proposed four stages of cognitive development: i) 0-2 Years - Sensor motor Period ii) 2-7 Years – Preoperational Period iii) 7-11 Years – Concrete Operational Period iv) 11-15 Years- Formal Operations Piaget believed that development is stimulated by cognitive conflict and it precedes learning. Vygotsky, a Russian contemporary of Piaget whose concepts were exposed to the world much later believed that cognition is a function of language by which the human mind encodes and makes a representation of the real world facts. He believed that language was the first tool and symbolic system for communication. History and culture have been transmitted from time immemorial through this powerful medium. Our thought processes are based on language itself what Vygotsky labelled as ‘inner speech’. The transformation and the internalization processes are enhanced by social interaction. The cognitive development initially takes place on a social plane where the child observes his parents’ behaviour and speech and tries to imitate it. The parents make efforts to correct the child and guide him/her to what they feel is appropriate and desirable in their behaviour. They provide the child with challenges to acquire more knowledge as and when they find it necessary. As the child grows the new information he gathers from the learning processes become internalized and language is represented in the mind as thought or inner speech. In sharp contrast to Piaget, Vygotsky believed that instruction precedes development and lead the learner into a Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which is defined as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with a more capable peer.” He also believed that the process of scaffolding guided the learner to believe what is desirable knowledge in order to enhance his present status i.e. the new learner is guided by a competent and knowledgeable person to reach a certain level of development. Vygotsky believed that instruction plays the most important role in the development of a person. This was the point of difference with Piaget’s theory. Two important aspects of cognitive learning are language and mathematical skills. Language Skills The native language need not be taught. As the child grows and learns to speak, it is but natural for him or her to pick up the language of the parents i.e. the native language through repetition of uttered words in the vicinity of the child. The speech system developed by the primitive man enabled the human symbolic capacity to move beyond it to develop complex languages dependent on high-speed processing capabilities. "The function of language as a discourse mechanism, integrating thought over extended thematic passages, stands in contrast to the idea of language as a device for categorizing objects of the world" (Nelson K, 1996). Culture exerts a heavy influence on the language which explains the existence of different languages in different parts of the world. Furthermore the prevalence and the popularity of the language as well as the cultural and scientific development in the area where that language is spoken or used influence the intellectual development of the individual. This is why certain areas of the world are advanced and better off than rest of the world due to the enrichment and progress in that particular language. In the under developed regions of the world, where language is different and the social/cultural/economic activity is at a relatively primitive stage, the native will not acquire more knowledge due to the limitations of his learning abilities which become a handicap for further progress as the higher knowledge has not been translated or is available in his native tongue. The person has to acquire and learn the language of the country where he wants to enhance his knowledge in some particular field. This fact holds true in the present era as well as different kinds of developments in science and other fields have taken place all over the world which have their own unique peculiarities. For example, to learn Chinese medicine, an English speaking native has the options of either learning the Chinese language or seek the help of translations of the facts into his own native tongue. Similarly in order to grasp the concepts of technical know-how like advanced engineering concepts, most of the people from rest of the world have to learn the languages of the developed world where most of this development has taken place during the course of history. Grasping a new language becomes more and more difficult as the individual ages, although in general view a person is considered wiser as he progresses in age. This leads to a very important aspect in the learning abilities and processes where the biological development is correlated to learning ability. The human mind is more receptive to learning new skills and languages during a particular phase in life. Language unlike most other skills is learned best younger and worst older (Johnson & Newport, 1989). There is also genetic variation in different populations and ethnicities of the world which determine the capability to learn a foreign language or its lack thereof (Dediu & Ladd, 2007). According to them linguistic tone is related to the population frequency of the adaptive haplogroups of two brain size genes called ASPM (a human gene whose defective forms are associated with autosomal recessive primary microcephaly) and Microcephalin (A gene regulating brain size). These genes occur more often in natives of language users who have a propensity for more tonal languages (Chinese and other East Asian languages) rather than the non tonal languages. In addition to this there has been recent research which suggests that the ability to listen to multiple sound sources at once is genetically determined and inheritable. This can explain the ability of certain races to grasp languages more efficiently and with success as compared to the rest. Multilingual societies and cultures exist all over the world and within the countries as well. The dialects and intonations change within small distances in the same geographical area. For example, India which is a multi cultural society has more than twenty languages spoken in its different states and generally natives of one state have difficulty in grasping the language of sometimes even the neighbouring state. Europe is another example where language changes drastically within a very confined geographical region. Native French and German speakers who are less educated have a total lack of understanding the English language. The development of modern media like television, internet and movies along with increase in international tourism has though brought diverse cultures into close association and the world is now more or less a cosmopolitan state. People from different cultures are living and working together and learning other languages and cultural practices more readily than ever before. This has brought about a drastic difference in the identity of the newer generations who are still in their teens and their multicultural identity is not difficult to spot. Mathematical Skills "The discipline of mathematics impinges on cultures in peculiar ways. It is applied to such diverse fields as music and war. In the twentieth century, it has contributed in surprising ways to how we understand the physical world at both atomic and cosmic scales. But, above all, it’s unique position in education on curricula at all levels, in all jurisdictions and in all languages ensures that it reaches the six billion human inhabitants of the globe more comprehensively than any other subject" (Oreilly Maurice, 2001). It is a generally accepted fact that mathematical skills are more prominent in some cultures as compared to others. This could happen either due to genetic variation or the sociological patterns of a particular community. In the east, multiplication tables are taught by rote and children are familiarized with mathematics at a very early stage in life. In fact since time immemorial society has been divided into two sections on the basis of knowledge or lack of it by the mathematicians. The people well versed in mathematical abilities has been made out to be more intelligent than others who lack in such skills. The discipline has a methodology which is unique among all the sciences. Deductive logic is the sole arbiter of truth in this branch of science which cannot be refuted once proven. This is more of a cultural practice as a result of which at a very young age they are able to handle complex mathematics problems better than their western counterparts. How culture influences the basic concepts of Arithmetic has been researched very well in a review by Saxe G.B., (1999) entitled ‘Cognition, Development, and Cultural Practices. In this review he has thrown light on the prevalent arithmetic system in the Oksapmin tribe of the West Sepik Province of Papua New Guinea, and the changing pattern of economic exchange in the region after exposure to western ideas. The Oksapmin people live in a remote highlands area. Western contact was first established with the Oksapmin by the Australians only in 1938-1940. The standard Oksapmin number system differs markedly from the Western base-ten system. To count as Oksapmin do, one begins with the thumb on one hand and enumerates 27 places around the upper periphery of the body, ending on the little finger of the opposite hand. If one needs to count further, one can continue back up to the wrist of the second hand and progress back upward on the body. Thus it is clear that this system which existed with no communication with rest of the world was propagated till the last century and modifications towards modern and worldwide established western system only took place after the Australian entry into the area. This shows how cultural influences can modify mathematical skills. The ‘zero’ was invented by the Indians and it drastically modified and simplified mathematical calculations all over the world and was a precursor to the modern advances in information technology and development of computers. Ethnomathematics is a term that has been coined to elucidate that everyone uses and can learn mathematics. The theme of ethnomathematics is to have respect and some knowledge of how a students’ native culture impacts the understanding of mathematics. It is now an identified area which advocates the teaching of elementary mathematics to children incorporating the ethnic peculiarities of certain students and modifying the teaching methods accordingly (Harding-Dekam, 2007). Culturally diverse backgrounds of the students are laid as the foundation for teaching learning second languages effectively. Cultures are valued and then linked to the course curriculum. This allows the students to not only understand their abilities in mathematics but also how they understand their relationship with rest of the world. Conclusion It is clear that cognitive development though common in all living beings as far as natural instincts are concerned assumes greater significance in human beings who are different from the nearest sub human primates in possessing a highly intelligent brain and the capability to communicate with each other through the powerful medium of language. The effects of culture and ethnic background on the development of language and mathematical skills are profound. Hypothesis and proven research in the various aspects of cognitive development have lead to the development of generally accepted norms and principles with scientific research and proof. The effect of cultural diversity and its influence on cognitive development is a major one and cannot be denied. References: Dediu, D. & Ladd, D.R. (2007). Linguistic tone is related to the population frequency of the adaptive haplogroups of two brain size genes, ASPM and Microcephalin. PNAS, 104(26), 10944-10949. Harding-DeKam Jenni L., Foundations in Ethnomathematics for Prospective elementary Teachers, Journal of Mathematics and Culture Volume 1, Number 2 — March 2007 Johnson, J. & Newport, E. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21, 60-99. Morell, R.J., Brewer, C.C., Ge, D., Snieder, H., Zalewski, C.K., King, K.A., Drayna, D., & Friednman, T.B. (2007). A twin study of auditory processing indicates that dichotic listening ability is a strongly heritable trait. Human Genetics 122(1), 103-111. Moshman, D. (2005). Adolescent Psychological Development (2nd Ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Nelson Katherine Language in Cognitive Development Emergence of the Mediated Mind Graduate School and University Center, The City University of New York © 1996 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Oreilly Maurice, 2001, Mathematics and Culture – A Vital Symbiosis, Department of Mathematics, St. Patricks College, Drumcondra Saxe, G. B. (1999). Cognition, development, and cultural practices. In E. Turiel (Ed.), Culture and Development. New Directions in Child Psychology. SF: Jossey-Bass. Solso, R. L. (1995). Cognitive psychology (4th Ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Tomasello Michael (2000) Culture and Cognitive Development Current Directions in Psychological Science 9 (2) , 37–40 Read More