Understanding Subsistence Patterns in the Modern World - Coursework Example

Understanding Subsistence Patterns in the Modern World In the studies of archaeology, researchers have tried their level best to try to organise the behaviour of many different cultures into a pattern form. Among many different groups in which these societies have been categorized, one has been of importance in the studies. This pattern is the method which a society adopts as a group to earn a living through procurement of food of other daily needed items to support living (Harris, 1996). Subsistence patterns have been classified into different categories and some of the important patterns that have been seen throughout history are: Foraging, Pastoralism, Horticulture and intensive agriculture. Many of these subsistence patterns have been the answer of problems pertaining to survival for societies throughout history. However, these patterns are not just part of history but can be found in today’s world as well and that too not in a dormant state but actively developed and adopted one (Harris, 1996). Out of the many subsistence patterns that are seen in history, Pastoralism is one where people earn their livelihood by herding animals that eat greens. They may vary in species and form around the world but all are tame and eat grass or plants that live in herds. The choice of animals varies according to the regions. In Magnolia and central Asia horses are preferred by most pastoralists. Cattle herding is done in East Africa. Sheep and goats is the choice of the mountainous region pastoralists of Southwest Asia (Harris, 1996). In the more arid lowland areas of Southwest Asia and North and East Africa the camel is used. Pastoralists in Northern Magnolia and Northern Scandinavia herd reindeer. The Dukha people of northern Mongolia, like their other Mongolian counterparts, milk and ride their reindeers whereas the Saami people of northern Scandinavia use the reindeers as their meat source (Harris, 1996). There are essentially two forms of pastoralism- known as nomadism and transhumance. Nomadism is seasonal migration with variance in pattern as the timing and destinations of the migrations are solely dependent on the needs of the herd for fodder and water. Moreover nomads on the basis of their migratory patterns live in tents or easily constructed dwellings and hence don’t possess permanent settlements. Usually they rely on their own means for food and other necessities (Ferraro, 2005). Transhumance pastoralists move from cool highland valleys in summer to warmer lowland valleys in winter thereby forming a cyclical pattern of migration. Unlike the Nomads they have permanent houses as the migration is seasonal between same two locations in which they have habitats. Transhumance pastoralists do farming to fend for themselves as they do not depend on their herd for food. They even trade their animals in markets for produce that they themselves fail to attain (Ferraro, 2005). Adjustments take place amongst the pastoralist societies as conditions change meaning that one transhumance society or family within it might convert to nomadic life pattern if it favours the herds likewise the Nomadic society might adopt the transhumance pattern for better gains. This change however occurs due to environmental circumstances and so not all pastoralist societies can be accurately described as following a nomadic or transhumance way of life (Ferraro, 2005). Pastoralism is the optimal subsistence pattern because of its independency from any particular environment. Pastoralists move their herds to better areas in case of drought or any unforeseen unfavourable environmental pattern. It is often an adaptation to semi-arid open country in which farming cannot be easily acquired without importing irrigation water from great distances. Farmers do not have the option of moving their crops to better areas in case of hazards hence they suffer crop failure and starvation. Hence in all likelihood pastoral subsistence is the optimal subsistence pattern when it comes to irregular climatic changes. This holds especially true in case of Nomads (Haviland, 1981). Pastoralists societies instil unity goodwill and cooperation in their people. This is attained by the ritual occasions in which animals are sacrificed. As they do not have the means to preserve the food properly the animal slaughtered is distributed within the community. Herded animals are rarely killed by pastoralists for family use, but through these rituals they attain the multipurpose of appeasing both God and man. Most pastoralists attain food from their herds without having the need to kill them. Horses, goats, sheep, cattle, and camels are milked. In East Africa, cattle herding societies also bleed their animals. The blood is mixed with fresh milk to make a protein rich drink (Haviland, 1981). Pastoralist societies most often have patrilineal descent patterns and are male dominated. Men play the role of making important decisions and consequently are the owners of the animals. Women primarily care for children and perform domestic chores. In both foraging and pastoralists societies the division of labour is based upon age and gender. Compared to pedestrian foraging societies, the economic and political power of most pastoralist women is very low (Haviland, 1981). Regardless of the region in which they live all Pastoralists often have the same distinct qualities of personality .This is especially true in case of men who tend to be cooperative with each other and hostile towards outsiders. They are independent thinkers and quick decision makers. Pastoralists grow very fond of their herd and always their actions are aimed for the benefit of their herd. A pastoralist leader is a man who can plan a foolproof optimum strategy in scarce resources independent of any consultation (Goode et al, 1971). Furthermore, he needs to make decisions easily and to act on them without hesitation. He is a man of initiative and aggressive defender of his herd by expanding territory at the expense of the others. Through bravery, self control and containment he achieves these goals at the same time he has to be realistic in the appraisal of the world. These qualities of pastoralist’s personality traits lead to subsistence success. Boys are encouraged to emulate them as they grow up (Goode et al, 1971). Prestige and power is attained through bravery and successful predatory raids. It is directly proportional to the number of herd he has accumulated. Communitys bachelor warriors are the teenagers and young men often. This is especially the case among the Masai, Kikuyu , and other cattle herders of East Africa. There is a vast the bachelor warriors usually do not begin to acquire their own herds until they become elders. Polygamy is a common pastoralist marriage pattern. It is the older men who marry the young women (Goode et al, 1971). Pastoralists have a history of being agricultural society conquerors .The Mongol horse pastoralists and the cattle herders of East and South Africa are the examples. The Mongol light cavalry-based armies were the ones with their powerful short bows who rapidly conquered China and Central Asia in the 13th century A.D. During the 14th century, they also seized control of Persia, Iraq, much of Russia, and the northern parts of South Asia. Beyond this vast area, the threat of their invasion caused many nations to pay the Mongols large tribute payments. In East Africa, pastoralists established important kingdoms from Uganda and Rwanda to South Africa. Perhaps, the most famous African pastoralist conquerors were the Zulus . During the 1830s, they began an intermittent war with the Dutch settlers of South Africa (i.e., the Boers ) after defeating several African farming peoples. The Zulus were finally subdued with great difficulty by the British army in 1879 (Harris, 1996). The reasons behind the success of war of pastoralist’s societies are manifold. They could move in large social context respecting and abiding the absolute rule of their leaders. Being independent of supplies from home base they could sustain quite happily over longer periods of time consequently being able to wage prolonged wars. They value extreme bravery and train their children accordingly. The Mongols rode their herds of horses into battle; these very horses carried their tents and provided them with food in the form of milk from the mares. Hence they had mobile cavalry units with them. In fact, they rode their horses into battle. The Mongols had highly mobile cavalry units. They fed their horses in the farm fields of the people they conquered thereby shattering the economy of the enemy while fattening up their own herd as well (Harris, 1996). Pastoralism will continue for the near future in poor nations, especially in Central Asia, because it is generally an efficient, low energy requiring subsistence base for semi-arid regions. Yet they will not have the same fate as the foraging societies. During the 20th century, however, most national governments tried to force pastoralists to stop their migrations and to reduce the size of their herds in order to prevent over-grazing. These efforts at controlling them were consistently resisted by pastoralists. To pastoralists large herds are usually seen as symbols of wealth and as security against unpredictable climates and periodic epidemics among their animals. Hence they are not familiar with the term conservation nor it holds any important significance to them as they migrated over vast areas and could easily move on when grasses and water were depleted (Harris, 1996). Today modern form of pastoralism is being practiced by cattle and sheep ranchers in Western North America, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, and a few other areas of the world. However, these ranchers are not subsistence pastoralists rather are businessmen whose interests are in producing commodities that are in demand in national and international markets. For this they use mechanized equipment such as trucks and even airplanes and helicopters (Harris, 1996). Despite the differences, there are major similarities in the way of life and personality between modern and traditional pastoralists. Both approach the world as high risk takers. Because of natural disasters they can either face loss or their herds could double in a few years rendering them richer. Modern pastoralists also admire men who are confident, self-reliant, and brave. There has been a striking similarity as well between 19th and early 20th century American cowboys and traditional subsistence pastoralists elsewhere around the world in their disdainful attitudes about farmers and fences. Hollywood has immortalized this story of strained relations between "sod-busters" and "cattlemen" in many western genre films (Harris, 1996). Works Cited: Ferraro, G. (2005). Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective. Wadsworth Publishing. Goode, W. J. et al. (1971). Social Systems and Family Patterns. Bobbs-Merrill Co. Harris, D. R. (1996). The Origins And Spread Of Agriculture And Pastoralism In Eurasia: Crops, Fields, Flocks And Herds. Routledge. Haviland, W. A. (1981). Cultural Anthropology. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Read More