Erikson's Theory of Child Development - Coursework Example

ERIKSON’S THEORY ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT Introduction Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was a psychoanalyst who created an original and highly influential theory of psychological development and crisis occurring in periods extending across the entire life cycle. The psychosocial theory of development describes crucial steps in a person’s relationship with the social world, based on the dynamics between biology and society. Erikson focused on the interactions between the child and his environment, and then determined the evolution of the maturing ego’s relations with an expanding social world. He identified dilemmas in the ego’s relations with the family and larger social institutions at significant points in childhood, adolescence, and early, middle and late adulthood (Sadock et al, 2007). The different aspects of child development identified by Erikson (1963) are: biological, social and individual. Erikson’s most important contribution to psychology is his demarcation of the eight psychosocial stages represented by the eight ages constituting the life span of an individual. An individual’s identity is related to each stage of the lifecycle. During adolescence a conflict between identity and role confusion can arise. Ego development occurs through the stages of the life span, and is part of a child’s evolution into adolescence. This paper proposes to discuss Erikson’s theory on child development, and focus on his theory on identity versus role confusion. Discussion As a student of Freud, Erikson took a unique perspective on Freud’s work, incorporated Freud’s primary assumptions, and broadened the network of factors considered responsible for influencing development. He extended Freudian psychoanalytic theory to focus on the ego as the fundamental component in an individual’s functioning. Erikson’s (1963) psychosocial theory of personality development is similar to Freud’s psychosexual theory of development with its emphasis on instinctual energy as a determining life force (Sadock et al, 2007). Freud’s viewpoint was that the most important determinants of development occurred during early childhood, but on the other hand Erikson believed that the most important development came later, and that development continued through the lifespan: from childhood till the last stage of life. Other differences between Freud and Erikson’s theories is that: Erikson does not stress on unconscious motives or desires, and he based his ideas on analyses of the functioning of healthy people, whereas Freud studied individuals being treated for mental health problems. Erikson considered key social interactions at each stage of development to be very important. Though he agreed that biological unfolding was an essential part of development, “particular social, cultural and historical environments that the child experienced mattered as well”. Development also differed according to individual differences and on the fact that if social interactions during previous stages of development had proceeded well resulting in healthy development, the next developmental stage would proceed in a smooth manner (Pressley & McCormick, 2007). The epigenetic principle underlying Erikson’s theory is that development occurs in sequential, clearly defined stages, and that each stage must be satisfactorily resolved for development to proceed smoothly. According to the epigenetic model, “if successful resolution of a particular stage does not occur, all subsequent stages reflect that failure in the form of physical, cognitive, social or emotional maladjustment” (Sadock et al, 2007: 208). Epigenesis is the primary mechanism through which development progresses. Erikson accepted Freud’s concept of instinctual development and infantile sexuality. For each of Freud’s psychosexual stages, Erikson described a corresponding zone with a specific pattern of behavior (Sadock et al, 2007). After reviewing Erikson’s views on the role of sex in psychosocial development, Franz & White (1985) identify a major shortcoming in Erikson’s views on the same. They state that it focuses mainly on issues of identity, and does not include the processes of interpersonal attachment that are vital to the development of both males and females. The authors suggest a two-path model of development which include the development of intimacy and other modes of interpersonal attachment. For Erikson, the ego is a unifying concept and ego strength holds together the different aspects or dimensions of psychological functioning. Erikson’s view of the ego is similar to Freud’s. “The ego is the executor of realistic goal-seeking actions and the intermediary between the biological urges of the id and the societal constraints of the superego” (Salkind, 2001: 141). In Ericson’s theory of psychosocial development, the ego is the most important structure, it is present at birth, although in an immature state. Through the ego, certain developmental crises are experienced and eventually resolved. Development is hampered when the ego falters and is unable to deal with a crisis. Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development According to Erikson, each of the eight stages of development that people pass through, involves a core conflict, with either a positive or a negative resolution of the conflict at each stage. Subsequent development depended in part on conflict resolution in the previous stage. It is essential to note that though each stage of the life cycle focuses on a particular conflict situation, all the eight conflicts can occur in different forms across the lifespan. For example, an early conflict such as trust versus mistrust which is resolved poorly in infancy because of the lack of a loving mother-infant relationship, may occur again. Increased trust in later life may replace the lack of trust experienced earlier in life. Erikson believed that adaptations commonly took place across the lifespan (Pressley & McCormick, 2007). Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development are as follows, with each stage representing a specific task or conflict that is required to be resolved. Trust versus Mistrust (First year of life): Infant’s needs must be met by responsive, sensitive caretakers. If this takes place, a basic sense of trust and optimism develops; otherwise, mistrust, fear of the future and anxiety result (Fogiel, 2000). Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1-3 years): Children begin to do things independently such as feeding and dressing themselves, thus establishing some autonomy from others. A part of autonomy is self control. During this stage a main part of the conflict regarding self control centers around toilet training. If children have difficulty establishing self control and autonomy, the results may be feelings of shame and doubt about one’s ability for autonomy. Initiative versus Guilt (4-5 years): During the preschool years, the child has many more new experiences in the world, and tries new roles and has some responsibilities. Through play children learn to plan and implement tasks. Children who are criticized or discouraged from taking the initiative learn to feel guilty (Fogiel, 2000). Industry versus Inferiority (6-12 years): During the elementary school years children are expected to begin to master the skills of the culture. For example, children are expected to develop fundamental literacy and numeracy skills. Success results in a feeling of industry, and failure can lead to a sense of inferiority (Fogiel, 2000). Identity versus Role Confusion (Adolescence): During this period, adolescents begin to establish who they are, what they believe in and what they want to become, thus developing an identity. After experimenting and struggling with possible roles and identities, an integrated image of oneself as a unique person is conceptualized, thereby establishing a sense of identity. Failure to achieve an identity results in role confusion (Fogiel, 2000). Intimacy versus Isolation (Young adulthood): After establishing an identity, an individual is prepared to form deep, intimate relationships with others. Failure to establish intimacy with others leads to a deep sense of isolation (Fogiel, 2000). Generativity versus Stagnation (Middle adulthood): Adulthood is a period of contributing to society and to the development of the next generation; otherwise a sense of stagnation results. Integrity versus Despair (Late adulthood): The person who resolves all of life’s crises in a positive manner is likely to reflect on their past and feel a sense of integrity. If otherwise, a sense of despair over the value of one’s life, will result (Fogiel, 2000). Identity Development In the psychosocial devleopmental stages of the human life span, identity development begins from infancy. The growing child derives an enlightening awareness that his individual way of mastering experience or the synthesis of ego is a successful way of obtaining group identity and is “in accordance with the group’s space-time and life plan” (Erikson, 1994 a: 21). When a child learns to walk, he becomes aware of his new status of one who can walk. In his culture’s life plan, this fact may have a number of connotations, such as “he who will go far”. Thus learning to walk may be one of the many steps in child development, which through the integration of the various concepts of mastery of physical skills, cultural meaning, functional pleasure and social recognition, contribute to the child’s self-esteem. This sense of self-esteem develops into a conviction that the ego is developing effectively towards a defined ego within a social context. This concept is termed as ego-identity by Erikson (1994 a.), and he conceptualizes this dynamic fact as both a subjective experience and also a group-psychological phenomenon. Further, the conscious feeling of having a personal identity is based on two concurrent realizations: “the immediate perception of one’s selfsameness and continuity in time, and the simultaneous perception of the fact that others recognize one’s sameness and continuity” (Erikson, 1994 a: 22). According to Erikson’s theory, the three main components in the identity of an individual are: “a conscious sense of individual uniqueness, an unconscious striving for continuity of experience, and a solidarity with group ideals” (Erikson. 1963: 261). Ego-identity is related to more than the fact of mere existence, it is the ego quality of this existence. The subjective dimension of ego identity is the realization of the fact that there is a self-sameness and continuity to the ego’s methods of integration; and that these methods are effective in protecting the sameness and continuity of one’s meaning for others (Erikson, 1994). For healthy ego development to occur, at each stage a different ego capability should emerge. Also, at each stage the interaction between the biological foundations of man with the culture results in a particular crisis; and how each crisis is confronted and dealt with is entirely based on the crisis that was encountered in the previous stage of development. The role of play in child development: to enhance a sense of identity: An important part of child development is play, which reveals facts about the child’s emotions, characteristics and coping strategies and enhances its identity. Play promotes creativity, social behavior and coping skills. Through the presentation of case studies Erikson (1963) focuses on the child’s relationship with its mother, and proposes that through play children find ways to master their sense of maternal estrangement. The causes of maternal alienation may be either due to maternal rejection or due to maternal absence because of circumstances beyond her control. Play is found to help in cognitive development and in acquiring skills to solve problems (Russ, 2003). The various experiences in play activities help the child to develop and strengthen its sense of identity. According to Erikson, identity is located in the self or core of the individual and communal culture, self esteem and an individual’s sense of belongingness are deeply affected by the concept of identity. Identity is closely linked with self-understanding. Further, Erikson believed that the transformations from childhood through adolescence presented role allocation challenges that often created identity confusion from interaction with peers and other daily activities. “Identity is a powerful phenomenon that strongly influences personality, one’s sense of belonging, one’s sense of sameness and one’s quality of life” (Barrett & George, 2004: 346). Identity versus Role Confusion With reference to the adolescent identity crisis, Erikson (1994 b.) explains identity as a concept that is difficult to understand as well as all-pervasive. Identity is a process that is central to the individual and also to the communal culture. With change in culture, there are changes in the issues related to identity, for example in the 1960s there was social protest and changing gender roles. The psychosocial issue of identity versus role confusion which occurs during adolescence is a crucial part of Erikson’s theory. With the development of competence and the advent of puberty, childhood comes to an end. Puberty is the time when some of the most radical changes take place in all spheres of individual development. Until the onset of puberty, the child has not experienced any physical or psychological needs that are as great as those of puberty. Both biologically and culturally, adolescence marks the entry into adulthood. Not only is it a time of great change and excitement, but also the stage when an individual develops an identity or a definition of self. The child begins to select and define a role and prepares to undertake the functions of the chosen position. The young person begins defining ideas and interests about further education, careers and young adult life (Salkind, 2004). The adolescent has to deal with the physiological rapid changes of genital maturity and the re-emergence of subconscious sexual impulses, an inner turmoil that can only be resolved by gaining recognition and support from significant others. A crucial problem at this stage is the identity crisis, which can result in either a pronounced sense of identity or to intense identity confusion and inner fragmentation. Young people are especially vulnerable to the offer of clearly defined roles or social acceptance, even if they have to take the road leading to crime and consequent personal destruction. Thus the potential dangers of adolescence include not only role confusion but also the adoption of a negative identity. A positive sense of identity depends partly on establishing an appropriate sexual role and partly on achieving a satisfying occupation. In case of a troublesome identity crisis, the individual may reject the demands of adulthood and extend the adolescent stage well past the appropriate age. Examples include “perennial students and dropouts who fail to complete their studies and adopt a vocation” (Ewen, 1988: 252). Conclusion This paper has highlighted Erikson’s theory on child development relating to the eight stages of psychosocial development. His concepts of identity, ego, and theory on identity versus role confusion have been discussed. . The various stages of an individual’s development depend for the resolution of the particular crises on the interaction of the biological, psychological, and societal systems during each stage of growth. A normal crisis arises at each stage of development, and a central process operates to resolve this crisis. The resolution of crises at each stage determines one’s coping abilities during the next stage. Positive resolutions of conflicts result in ego strengths and negative resolutions contribute to undermining the outcome of the next stage. Identity crisis and core pathologies in individuals result from tendencies that restrict social behavior in general and new behavior in particular (Newman & Newman, 2005). Thus Erikson’s theory on psychosocial development through the life span, focuses on social interactions of the child with his environment which help in his conceptualization of identity and development of ego at each of the eight stages. References Barrett, K. & George, W. 2004. Race, culture, psychology and law. California: Sage Publications. Erikson, E.H. 1963. Childhood and society. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Erikson, E.H. 1994 a. Identity and the life cycle. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Erikson, E.H. 1994 b. Identity: youth and crisis. The United States of America: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Ewen, R.B. 1988. An introduction to theories of personality. The United Kingdom: Psychology Press. Fogiel, M. 2000. Psychology II: Super review. The United States of America: Research and Education Association. Franz, C.E. & White, K.M. 1985. Individuation and attachment in personality development: extending Eriksons theory. Journal of Personality, 53 (2): 224-256. Newman, B.M. & Newman, P.R. 2005. Development through life: a psychosocial approach. California: Thomson Wadsworth. Russ, S.W. 2003. Play in child development and psychotherapy: toward empirically supported practice. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Sadock, B.J., Kaplan, H.I. & Sadock, V.A. 2007. Kaplan & Sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry: behavioral sciences/ clinical psychiatry. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health. Salkind, N.J. 2004. An introduction to theories of human development. California: Sage Publications. Read More