Islamic Architecture: An Engagement of the Divine in the Human - Essay Example

Islamic Architecture: An Engagement of the Divine in the Human Class Name Date you want on Paper An inscription above a basin of water in the Alhambra reads: “The water of the basin in my center is like the soul of a believer who rests in the remembrance of God.” (Burckhardt, Islamic Spirituality, p. 506) Islamic architecture is as the basin of water, designed to be the place in which human beings engage the “water of their center,” namely their remembrance of and relationship with God. Whether in a mosque, a madrasah, or a residence, Islamic architecture has as its goal to both reflect and even to reveal the presence of God to the human soul. (Burckhardt, Art of Islam, p. 203) The divine reflections and revelations of Islamic architecture have deep historical roots in multiple cultures and religions. From ancient Greece to twenty-first century technological marvels, Islamic architecture draws from a plethora of rich influences and resources in creating its own unique experience of bringing the sacred and the divine into the human experience. The earliest historical influences arise out of the architecture of Ancient Greece with its Doric, Ionic and Corinthian styles of architecture as defined by their columnar structures. The influence of the Ionic and later Corinthian styles can be seen in columns of the earliest mosques, such as the Hagia Sophia built in 532 A.D in Istanbul (then Constantinople) in which Corinthian style columns can be seen on the left side knave and Ionic-style columns in the center kiosk in the picture at left (Wegner, Hagia Sophia, [internet]) and in the Tulun Mosque in Cairo Egypt built in 876 A.D. in the picture on the right in which the Corinthian style columns provide the supports to all the doorways and arches. (“Islamic Architecture” in Free Dictionary [internet]) The Romans also added their influence to Islamic architecture. Roman architecture was socio-policitical in nature. Its aim was primarily focused on public events of which the collisem in Rome is the main existing example. Islam absorbed this focus in its architecture as well in the way its people built their communities in consideration of community needs rather than individual glory. (Helms, pp 129-132) Mosques and Madrasahs reflect the spaciousness of the Roman buildings, as places with space for the whole community to gather for edification and worship. A mosque in Armenia provides an example of this with the photograph to the left illustrating its outer simplicity and the photograph to the left showing a floor-plan of its inner spaciousness. When the Byzantine Empire became the dominant force in what had been the Roman Empire, the most dominant influence on Islamic architecture exerted its impact. As Islamic forces spread across the eastern parts of the Byzantine empire, they absorbed much the art they encountered. (Yalman, The Birth of Islam, [internet])The highly ornamental nature of Byzantine architecture became one of the dominant characteristics of Islamic architecture as well. The earliest influences include the use of calligraphy as an ornament in their architecture. To the right is an example from a Mosque in Afghanistan. (Islamic Architecture, IAAO, [internet]). The Taj Mahal is the most famous and magnificent example of Islamic architecture in which calligraphy is the primary ornamental feature. One of the most profound influences on Islamic architecture was the Hagia Sophia. The church was dedicated in 360 by the Emperor Constantius, son of Emperor Constantine. The Hagia Sophia served as the cathedra, or bishops seat, of Constantinople, the then capital of the Empire. The first church was burned to the ground by riots in 404 A.D. A second church was built and it too burned down during the Nika revolt of 532 A. D. In 532 Emperor Justinian ordered the church rebuilt and it was dedicated in 537 A.D. Its system of domes and arcades became the basis for mosque design throughout the world. (Wegner, [Internet]) To the left is a photo of the view from the east in which the system of arcades is visible. To the right the amazing network of domes is clearly visible. In 1453 the Hagia Sophia was converted to a mosque which it remained until 1934 the Turkish government made it a museum. As demonstrated in part by the Hagia Sophia, the Early Christian Church also brought its influence to bear on Islamic architecture. One of the hallmarks of early Christian architecture is the development of the monastic lifestyle and the monastery. A common floor plan of the monastery included a cloister surrounding a square courtyard. Located around the cloister were the library, chapter house, dormitory, refectory, kitchen, cellar, infirmary, and other spaces essential to monastic practices and lifestyle. Both the Madrasah (religious school) and the Muslim residence follow this pattern and to the sides are two photos of different madrashes that illustrate the Islamic use of this original monastic design. (Islamic Architecture, IAAO, [internet]) As the Ottoman Empire grew and flourished Islamic architecture moved away from Greco-Roman, Byzantine and early Christian influences and began its own developmental history. The first notable period is called the Umayyad period after the rulers of that period. While earlier architectural traditions continued, the customs and evolving doctrines of the Islam faith required different applications of space. The Umayyads often constructed their monuments on sites of historical or symbolic significance. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (691), the first major Umayyad architectural undertaking completed under the patronage of the caliph cAbd al-Malik (685–705), was built on the site upon which once Solomons Temple stood and which was later believed to be the location of Muhammads ascent to heaven. Other renowned religious buildings from the Umayyad period include the mosque in Medina (706) which was the original house of Muhammad, and the Mosque of Damascus (706), the Umayyed capital, which was built from the original Byzantine cathedral of John the Baptist (picture on the right). The desert palaces such as Mshatta, Qasr cAmra in Jordan, the ruins of which can be seen in the picture on the left, and Khirbat al-Mafjar in Palestine were also built during this creative period for Islamic architecture. The second period of Islamic architecture coming into its own history is called the Abbasid period. This was the period when surface decoration began to emerge and flourish. (Materials and Techniques of Islamic Architecture, IAAO, [internet]) The palace of Jawsaq al-Khaqani (836) the front façade of which is pictured at left, and the mosques of al-Mutawakkil (848) pictured on the right and Abu Dulaf (859) in Samarra’ are exemplary examples of this period. The splendid use of surface decoration can be seen in this example from the Cordoba Mosque (785) built during this period pictured on the right. The third period known as the Mamluk period is historically known and valued in Islamic architecture for the development of the decorative arts, particularly enameled and gilded glass, inlaid metalwork, woodwork, and textiles. (The Concept of Decoration in Islamic Architecture, IAAO, [internet]) Two examples can be seen here, both from the Suleyman complex in Istanbul. The one on the left is a lantern from the Suleyman Mosque; the one on the right is a caftan from the Suleyman Palace. The fourth period was the Ottoman period, in which the great reign of Suleyman was the point at which Islamic art and architecture reached its zenith. The great Islamic architect Sinan lived and flourished during this period. This was the period in which the grand Tokapi Palace in Istanbul (photo of entrance on the right) was commissioned and built and the Mehmediye complex (the name was later changed to Fatih) was also constructed. The Fatih complex was a community unto itself combining religious, social, education, and commercial activities. During this period public buildings were designed and constructed throughout the Ottoman Empire, strengthening the proliferation of Ottoman culture to the farthest corners of the Empire. With this brief sketch it is clear that Islamic architecture developed from many sources and drew the best and most applicable elements from those sources to create its own style and expression of a culture and a faith. The mosque is neither a church nor a temple, but it drew from both of those historical traditions to become the center of religious life for the Muslim community who worships within its walls. The madrasah is not a monastery but it drew from elements of Greek, Roman, and early Christian traditions, to create a place of learning cherished by the believers of the Muslim faith. And the residences which follow this similar pattern are pleasant and tranquil homes for those families who reside therein. Sri Lanka The unique attributes of Islamic architecture are many and each a reflection of an aspect of the Islamic faith. The mosque is more than just a place of worship. The word itself means “place of prostration” and the interior space is designed with that in mind. The mosque is a place to humble oneself before God the Creator – a place of humility and remembering. It is a place in which there is no differentiation between secular and sacred (Islamic Architecture, Free Dictionary, [internet]) A small alcove called the mihrab indicates the orientation to Mecca. Next to it is the pulpit, called the minbar. The dome indicates the “dome” of the heavens which is seen as God’s protection for the Muslim. The domes of Islamic architecture take many forms. One of the most striking domes in the world is, of course, the Dome of the Rock Mosque in Jerusalem which is a globular dome. The Blue Mosque in Istanbul has flat domes. The Bajra Shahi Mosque in Bengali (Bangladesh) and the Jami-Ul-Alfar Mosque in Sri Lanka are two markedly different examples of the bulbous dome. In Islamic architecture windows are built into the lower parts of the various types of domes to add more light and thus enhance the sacred character of the mosque. The minaret is the tower from which the believer is called to prayer five times every day. To the left is the King’s Mosque in Esfahan, Iran with two stunning minarets keeping watch over its worshipers. Older mosques have spiral designs in the style of the Ottoman Empire such as the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey (on the right) built in 1609 for Sultan Ahmet I. (Islamic Architecture, Free Dictionary, [internet]) The simple practicality yet quiet sacred beauty of the mosque extends to the family home as well. Islamic private houses are practical and peaceful because they are focused inward on inner space. They are usually two or three large rooms divided into spaces for eating, sleeping, working, etc. (see the picture at the left) The open-air interior courtyard helps keep the house cool in hot, arid areas and also provides protection from wind and sun for outdoor family activities. The thick walls with few to no windows which provide the street facades of the houses are designed to weather severe hot winds, blowing sand and blazing sunlight. (see the picture on the right) The flat roof with high parapets aids in the weather protection as well. (Islamic Architecture, IAAO, [internet]) Even in the residences the rich ornamentation so prolific in the mosques is visible in both of the above pictures, and speaks to the deeper life of the soul, the spiritual center of Islam. The four basic components of Islamic ornament are calligraphy, vegetal patterns, geometric patterns, and figural representation. (The Concept of Decoration in Islamic Architecture, IAAO, [internet]) As mentioned earlier, calligraphy was the first decorative art in Islamic architecture. Geometric patterns immediately followed such as the one on the left which is part of a door panel in a mosque in Cairo. Vegetal patterns came much later during the reigns of the Mughals and the Ottomans. They are usually of flowers and nature such as the patterns in the framed Qur’an leaf shown on the right. (Vegetal Patterns in Islamic Art, IAAO, [internet]) Figural representation was the last to develop and included animals and people. From the same mosque in Cairo comes an example of another door panel pictured at the left in which two serpents are clearly carved into the woodwork. (Woodwork in Islamic Arts, IAAO, [internet]) The Islamic architecture of today still displays this splendid detailed artistry but has lost some of it spiritual character. To the right is the Assyafaah Mosque in Singapore as an example of the missing spiritual ambiance of the twentieth and twenty-first century mosque. Although an architecturally engaging building in its own right, this building is difficult to identify as a mosque and more importantly as Islamic architecture, and therein lies the foundation of Islamic architecture. For it is more than just buildings and art. It is the embodiment of a way of life embracing many culturally diverse peoples in one faith. It is a powerful engagement of the Divine presence in human form and expression; and thus the hope and aim of Islamic architecture is to re-establish that identity as it moves forward into the twenty-first century. Bibliography Blair, Sheila S., Bloom, Jonathan M. (1999) “Art and Architecture: Themes and Variations” in: Esposito, John, The Oxford History of Islam. New York, Oxford University Press, pp.155-215. Brown, David. (2004) God and the Enchantment of Place: Reclaiming Human Experience. New York, Oxford University Press. Burckhardt, Titus. (1976) Art of Islam: Language and Meaning. Translated from the French by Peter Hobson. London, Islamic Festival Trust Ltd. Burckhardt, Titus. (1997) “The Spirituality of Islamic Art” in Hossein-Nasr, Sayyed, editor, Islamic Spirituality: Manifestations. New York, Crossroad Herder, p. 506. The Concept of Decoration in Islamic Architecture (2004) (Internet) Available from: Islamic Arts and Architecture Organization. (Accessed 21 August 2008) Engineering in Islamic Architecture (2004) (Internet) Available from: Islamic Arts and Architecture Organization. (Accessed 21 August 2008) The Expression of Power and Islamic Architecture (2004) (Internet) Available from: Islamic Arts and Architecture Organization. < http://www.islamicart.com/main/architecture/arcpower.html> (Accessed 21 August 2008) Farmer, Ben and Louw, Hentie, editors. (1993) Companion to Contemporary Architectural Thought. London, Routledge. The Future of Islamic Architecture (2004) (Internet) Available from: Islamic Arts and Architecture Organization. < http://www.islamicart.com/main/architecture/future.html> (Accessed 21 August 2008) Gorringe, T.J. (2002) A Theology of the Built Environment: Justice, Empowerment, Redemption. Cambridge, England, Cambridge University Press. Helms, Svend with contributions by Betts, A.V.G.W., Lancaster, F., and Lenzen, C.J. (1990) Early Islamic Architecture of the Desert: A Bedouin Station in Eastern Jordan. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Hemingway, Collette. Architecture in Ancient Greece (2007) (Internet) Available from: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Timeline of Art History, Thematic Essays (Accessed 19 August 2008) The Impact of Islamic Arts on the West (2004) (Internet) Available from: Islamic Arts and Architecture Organization. (Accessed 21 August 2008) Islamic Architecture (2004) (Internet) Available from: Islamic Arts and Architecture Organization. (Accessed 20 August 2008) “Islamic Architecture” in: The Free Dictionary by Farlex, (2004) (Internet) Available from: Helicon Publishing. (Accessed 20 August 2008) Islamic Shrines and Palaces. (2004) (Internet) Available from: Islamic Arts and Architecture Organization, (Accessed 20 August 2008) Kertmenjyan, D. G. (2007) “Compositional Peculiarities of Muslim Religious Buildings of Shoushi Town,” Shoushi Popular Scientific Review, Vol. 108. 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(2007) New York, Columbia University Press, page 32089 Mortada, Hisham. (2003) Traditional Islamic Principles of Built Environment. London, RoutledgeCurzon Vegetal Patterns in Islamic Art (2003) (Internet) Available from: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Timeline of Art History. < http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/vege/hd_vege.htm> (Accessed 22 August 2008) Wegner, Emma. Hagia Sophia, 532-37 (2007) (Internet) Available from: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. (Accessed 20 August 2008) Yalman, Suzan. The Birth of Islam. (2007) (Internet) Available from: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Timeline of Art History, (Accessed 19 August 2008) Yalman, Suzan. The Art of the Ottomans. (2007) (Internet) Available from: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. < http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/otto1/hd_otto1.htm > (Accessed 20 August 2008) My Essay Outline Introduction and Thesis: This paper will discuss and summarize the type of architecture, the history of Islamic architecture, and the features of Islamic architecture. I. Types of architecture A. Greek -Ancient Greek architects strove for the precision and excellence of workmanship that are the hallmarks of Greek art in general. 1. Doric - the columns are fluted and have no base. The capitals are composed of two parts consisting of a flat slab, the abacus, and a cushion-like slab known as the echinus. On the capital rests the entablature, which is made up of three parts: the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice. The architrave is typically undecorated except for a narrow band to which are attached pegs, known as guttae. On the frieze are alternating series of triglyphs (three bars) and metopes, stone slabs frequently decorated with relief sculpture. The pediment, the triangular space enclosed by the gables at either end of the building, was often adorned with sculpture, early on in relief and later in the round. 2. Ionic - bases support the columns, which have more vertical flutes; Ionic capitals have two volutes that rest atop a band of palm-leaf ornaments. The abacus is narrow and the entablature, unlike that of the Doric order usually consists of three simple horizontal bands. The most important feature of the Ionic order is the frieze, which is usually carved with relief sculpture arranged in a continuous pattern around the building. 3. Corinthian - developed in the late Classical period, but was more common in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Corinthian capitals have a bell-shaped echinus decorated with acanthus leaves, spirals, and palmettes. There is also a pair of small volutes at each corner; thus, the capital provides the same view from all sides. B. Roman 1. The theater and amphitheater - the amphitheater had no architectural precedent in the Greek world. driven largely by social and political forces. The columnar scaenae frons, for example, may have developed to house statuary looted from Greece and Asia Minor by Roman generals and exhibited at triumphal games as evidence of their military prowess. The architecture of the Roman theater also signals Roman concern for social control and hierarchical display. In contrast to the Greek world, where seating in the theater was largely open, Roman audiences were rigorously segregated on the basis of class, gender, nationality, profession, and marital status. This is reflected in both the enclosed form of the Roman theater, which restricted access to the building, and the system of vaulted substructures, which facilitated the routing of spectators to the appropriate sector of seating. As a whole, this pervasive culture of spectacle served both as a vehicle for self- advertisement by the sociopolitical elite and as a means of reinforcing the shared values and institutions of the entire community. C. Byzantine 1. Justinians reign is distinguished by an exceptional record of architectural and artistic production. (Hagia Sophia) The vast, airy naos, or central basilica, with its technically complex system of vaults and semi-domes, culminates in a high central dome with a diameter of over 101 feet (31 meters) and a height of 160 feet (48.5 meters). This central dome was often interpreted by contemporary commentators as the dome of heaven itself. Its weight is carried by four great arches, which rest on a series of tympana and semi-domes, which in turn rest on smaller semi- domes and arcades. D. Early Christian 1. Monastic Cloister center - a typical monastic plan that included a church with an adjacent cloister in the shape of a square courtyard. Around the cloister could generally be found the library, chapter house, dormitory, refectory, kitchen, cellar, infirmary, and other spaces essential to the daily monastic regimen. 2. Iconography - in the early Christian era, Syrian artists were among the first to paint icons, illuminated manuscripts, and church murals. E. Islamic architecture 1. Islamic art thus developed from many sources. Roman, Early Christian, and Byzantine styles were taken over in early Islamic architecture. 2. In architecture, following the hijra, Muhammads house in Medina developed into a center for the Muslim community and became the prototype for the mosque, the Muslim sanctuary for God. The early structure, known as the hypostyle mosque, included a columned hall oriented toward Mecca and an adjacent courtyard surrounded by a colonnade. The call to prayer was given from a rooftop (later the minaret was developed for this purpose). Essential elements of the mosque were a minbar (pulpit) for the Friday sermon and a mihrab (prayer niche) set in the wall oriented toward Mecca. II. The History of Islamic Architecture A. 1st Period 1. Umayyad Architecture As with the arts, the Umayyad period was also critical in the development of Islamic architecture. While earlier architectural traditions continued, the requirements of the new religion and customs of the new Arab rulers necessitated a different usage of space. In the case of religious buildings, the Umayyads often constructed their monuments on sites of historical or symbolic significance. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (691), the first major Umayyad architectural undertaking completed under the patronage of the caliph cAbd al-Malik (r. 685–705), was built on a prominent site formerly occupied by Solomons Temple and later associated with Muhammads ascent to heaven. Other renowned religious buildings from the Umayyad period date from the reign of al-Walid (r. 705–15) and include the enlarged mosque in Medina (706–10), the former house of Muhammad. Also significant are the mosques of Damascus (706), where the site of the former Roman temple and fourth-century Byzantine church dedicated to Saint John the Baptist was transformed into the congregational mosque of the Umayyad capital, and of Jerusalem (709–15). In terms of secular architecture, Umayyad desert palaces such as Mshatta, Qasr cAmra (Jordan), cAnjar (Lebanon), Khirbat al-Mafjar (Palestine), and Qasr al-Hayr East and West (Syria) (all ca. 700–750), are a testimony to the wealth of their patrons and the creativity of Umayyad architects. [People didnt build a lot of new buildings during the Umayyad period, mainly because they were busy getting organized after the Islamic conquests, and because the Umayyad dynasty didnt rule very long.] B. 2nd Period: 1. Abbasid architecture In terms of architecture, along with the palace of Jawsaq al-Khaqani (ca. 836 onward), the mosques of al-Mutawakkil (848–52) and Abu Dulaf (859–61) in Samarra’ were important in setting the style that was emulated in regions as far as Egypt or Central Asia, where it was adapted to need and taste. Just as the religion of Islam embodies a way of life and serves as a cohesive force among ethnically and culturally diverse peoples, the art produced by and for Muslim societies has basic identifying and unifying characteristics. Perhaps the most salient of these is the predilection for all-over surface decoration. The four basic components of Islamic ornament are calligraphy, vegetal patterns, geometric patterns, and figural representation. [When the Abbasid dynasty moved the capital of the Islamic Empire to Baghdad from Damascus, of course they needed a lot of new buildings to make it beautiful. Because the modern city of Baghdad is right on top of the Abbasid city, theres not much left of medieval Baghdad for us to see.] C. 3rd Period: 1. Mamluk architecture Mamluk decorative arts—especially enameled and gilded glass, inlaid metalwork, woodwork, and textiles—were prized around the Mediterranean as well as in Europe, where they had a profound impact on local production. The influence of Mamluk glassware on the Venetian glass industry is only one such example. Endowed public and pious foundations continued to be favored. Major commissions in the early Burji period in Egypt included the complexes built by Barquq (r. 1382–99), Faraj (r. 1399–1412), Mu’ayyad Shaykh (r. 1412–21), and Barsbay (r. 1422–38). 2. Ottoman architecture Mehmed II ("the Conqueror," r. 1444–46, 1451–81) envisaged the city as the center of his growing world empire and began an ambitious rebuilding program. He commissioned two palaces (the Old and the New, later Topkapi, palaces) as well as a mosque complex (the Mehmediye, later Fatih complex), which combined religious, educational, social, and commercial functions. The age of Süleyman (r. 1520–66) witnessed the zenith of Ottoman art and culture. Among the most outstanding achievements of this period were the mosques and religious complexes built by Sinan (1539–1588), one of the most celebrated Islamic architects. Hundreds of public buildings were designed and constructed throughout the Ottoman empire, contributing to the dissemination of Ottoman culture. In the period following Süleymans death, architectural and artistic activity resumed under patrons from the imperial family and the ruling elite. Commissions continued outside the imperial capital, with many pious foundations established across the realm. [As soon as the Ottoman sultans had conquered Constantinople from the Roman emperors in 1453 AD, they began to build themselves a great new palace, which is now called the Topkapi. Work on the Topkapi palace began in 1459 AD.] III. Features of Islamic Architecture 1. Mosques 2. Domes 3. Minarets 4. Decoration Conclusion "Utility established as meaning generates meaninglessness." (philosopher Hannah Arendt) a need for architecture to speak once again to people, to become "presence" once again, to become material, to reacquire a meaning that can sometimes be erotic; a need to reestablish a partnership with people. Read More