Full Description of Hesss Concepts - Essay Example

Theories on the History of Science as Social Constructs Roll No: Teacher: 26th September 2008 Table of Contents Table of Contents 2 Theories on the History of Science as Social Constructs 3 Introduction 3 T.S. Kuhn 3 STS Theories 4 Compare and Contrast 6 Conclusion 7 References 9 Theories on the History of Science as Social Constructs Introduction History of science links it to many other branches such as politics, society, culture, nature and social behavior. This paper discusses T.S. Kuhn’s ideas related to the scientific revolution and finds the usage of his ideas in the movie, “Mindwalk”. Then it moves towards the other topic that takes into consideration, the writer Hess and his described terms of technototemism, reconstruction and also finds his theories related to these terms. The essay also finds out the association between science and technology to other parts of society. After full description of Hess’s concepts related to the cultural construction of science and technology, this paper moves towards a comparison between the theories of Carolyn Merchant and Hess. Both of them have their own ideas related to science, technology and nature. Merchant takes a feminist stance in her description of science and technology. At the end, a conclusion is given that summarizes the overall paper. T.S. Kuhn T.S. Kuhn is his book, “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions”, evaluates the history of Science. Kuhn illustrates that science has not developed from accretion of factual information but from continuous transforming situations and probabilities for the people related to scientific disciplines (Polsby, 1998). For Kuhn, science that was prevalent in different eras of history was an output of the factors at that time (Polsby, 1998). Kuhn divided the history of science in three phases. In the first phase, there was no agreement on a single theory and people differ from each other in terms of suggested theories due to which, the theories of this phase were left deficient (Kuhn, 1962). Second phase saw some acceptance on theories and there was proper experimentation and analysis (Kuhn, 1962). Kuhn regards the third phase of science as innovatory and revolutionary (Kuhn, 1962). According to Kuhn, science moves between these phases to get some results (Kuhn, 1962). The movie, “Mindwalk” directed by Bernt Amadeus Capra introduces three characters who are involved in a correspondence. First one is a politician; second one is a scientist while the third one is a poet. Each of them has a diverse viewpoint and sees the world differently. The movie is based on Kuhn ideas that are linked to the discovery of new concepts in scientific field. The movie illustrates that people should not rely on old discoveries and theories, they should revolutionize and should move towards new grounds. As Kuhn has explained that, every scientific development has three phases, and the third phase is related to revolution in which, there is challenge and crises in terms of current accepted theories (Kuhn, 1962). This movie also wants the people to move towards the third revolutionary phase and to introduce new ideas and scientific concepts. STS Theories According to Hess, totemism is a category of evaluation that exposes the inter-linkage between political and cultural differences. Technototemism is referred to as the coproduction between technical and social difference (Hess, 1995a). Hess explains that individual identity and social connection is only created when people of a society hold fast to natural and technological phenomenon (Hess, 1995a). Levi Strauss, the scientist has coined a term bricoleur—change of an old version into a new version by means of reconstruction, which means that when information related to nature, myth or any other information travels from one culture to other, it is changed according to the new culture (Hess, 1995a). Every society after attainment of any information related to a culture, transform it into their own. Same process is related to scientific knowledge. After attainment of scientific knowledge, the experts of a society transform the information related to scientific knowledge according to their own cultural values due to which, there are changes in scientific theories and discoveries (Hess, 1995a). Therefore, different versions of technology and science are created in different societies. Hess describes that reconstruction is another term for bricolage. Scientists, engineers and other persons related to scientific disciplines are involved in making new versions of science and technology according to their own cultures, in other words, we can say that they try to reconstruct science (Hess, 1995a). The formation of scientific information in different cultures, societies, gender and races is linked to the idea of brocoleur (Hess, 1995a). There are technoscientific reformers in a society that do the job of technoscientific reconstruction. According to Hess, science and technology do not have association to only culture and politics but they are also linked to social behavior (Hess, 1995b). Hess informs that science and technology can be regarded as acceptable only from the perspective of their creators or experts who have given meaning to them but when it goes to non-technical persons after being implemented, it goes through the phase of reconstruction (Hess, 1995b). This cultural reconstruction is related to technototemism. Compare and Contrast Carolyn Merchant in her book, “The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution”, argues that it is because of revolution of modern science that the nature has lost its value (Merchant, 1980). She elaborates that science is the reason of making nature a mechanistic thing that lacks its previous values. According to Merchant, science is the death of nature (Merchant, 1980). Her approach towards science is pessimistic and she regards science as one force that has transformed nature into a machinery. According to Merchant, all the environmental problems of the earth are linked to the evolution of science. She also links womanhood to nature as nature is always portrayed with the female sex (Merchant, 1980). Merchant argues that with the scientific revolution, the face of the earth has changed. Before scientific revolution, the earth was a nurturing mother for the humankind but after the evolution of science, the earth changed from a nurturing mother to a mechanistic thing (Merchant, 1980). With the changing of earth’s face, the role of women on earth also changed. Ecosystem was disturbed by science. With the inauguration of movements related to security and safety of ecosystem and equal rights for women, the subjugation of women and nature, both are going to reverse (Merchant, 1980). Hess also associates human beings to the scientific revolution but his ideas are different as compared to Merchant. Hess regards that science has been passed through reconstruction in order to move from one culture to another and it has participated in the building of society (Hess, 1995b). He also links reconstruction of science and technology to society, race, culture, nature and politics (Hess, 1995b). According to him, the development in science and technology is not here as a separate field but it is combined to other parts of society (Hess, 1995a). Merchant also links science, nature and society but her point of views related to scientific development are pessimistic while Hess delivers ideas with full optimism. Both of the writers, Merchant and Hess, consider scientific revolution associated to society and nature but their thinking patterns are different. Merchant has considered only womanhood being infected by scientific revolution along with ecosystem while Hess considers the whole humanity. Merchant takes a feminist stance in her writing. Hess has seen and informed about history of science as a reconstruction process in terms of science and technology according to social, natural and technological aspects of a society while Merchant has presented the history of scientific development as affecting ecological world and women negatively. Conclusion History of science as social constructs is a huge topic as many people have researched the history of science linking it to society as a whole. T.S. Kuhn in his book, “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” elaborates his ideas related to the revolution in science. T.S. Kuhn wants the people to discover new aspects of science and to discard the old and obsolete views (Polsby, 1998). He regards that people are sticking fast with the old concepts of science and they are required to move towards new concepts (Kuhn, 1962). The ideas of T.S. Kuhn are linked to the movie, “Mindwalk” directed by Bernt Amadeus Capra. In the movie, the same message as T.S. Kuhn gives is further spread to people so that, they can move in new directions and can accept what is anew and innovated. With the development of technology, old concepts are no more of the same value as they were before. Hess’ concept of “the cultural construction of science and technology” moves around the words “technototemism” and “reconstruction”. He links the scientific reconstruction with different cultures and societies and informs that people from different cultures reconstruct science and technological development according to their own culture, society, gender and race (Hess, 1995a). He explores an association between science and technology and nature. According to Hess, nature, society, social behavior, culture, politics, science and technology, all the aspects are interwoven and their association to each other cannot be negated (Hess, 1995a). Carolyn Merchant while exploring the history of science finds an association between nature and women. According to her opinion, scientific evolution has affected the ecological world and womanhood together (Merchant, 1980). She is of the opinion that science is the reason of changing the face of earth and the role of women on earth. With the movements of feminism and security of ecosystem, there are chances of reversal of subjugation of nature and women (Merchant, 1980). Hess and Merchant both associate science and technology to nature, society and humankind but their approaches are different. One considers science as destructive while other regards science as associated to development of world. As a whole, the essay discusses history of science as a social construct by different point of views, which are fully elaborative and explain history of science as social constructs. References Capra, Bernt Amadeus. (1990). Mindwalk. Also available at http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=854094769667634943&hl Hess, David. (1995a). “The Cultural Construction of Science and Technology”. Science and Technology in a Multicultural World: The Cultural Politics of Facts and Artifacts. New York: Columbia University Press, 18-53. Hess, David. (1995b). “The Origins of Western Science: Technototems in the Scientific Revolution”. Science and Technology in a Multicultural World: The Cultural Politics of Facts and Artifacts. New York: Columbia University Press, 54-86. Kuhn, T.S. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Merchant, Carolyn. (1980). The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1-12. Polsby, Nelson W. (1998). Social Science and Scientific Change: A Note on Thomas S. Kuhns Contribution. Annual Review of Political Science 1 (6), 199-210. Read More