Major Aspects of Sociology - Essay Example

Chapter 4 Socialization I. Socialization: A Significant Human Process The process of the acquisition of knowledge, values, morals and beliefs of an individual from others is called socialization. Socialization is a continuous process because individuals, as they mature still need to learn new things in order to survive (Schaefer, 1995) A. Nurture: The Negative Effect of Isolation Researchers are emphasizing the significance of early socialization experiences for individuals who are reared in more normal environments. It is now accepted that it is not sufficient to address merely the newborn’s physical needs; parents and other concerned individuals should also devote themselves in the children’s social development (ibid). B. Genetics on Socialization Twin studies have shown that there is an interaction between environmental factors and heredity. The preliminary outcomes from the conducted twin studies imply that both genetic factors and socialization processes are essential in human development (ibid). C. The Darwinian Perspective of Human Behavior This is the scientific and systematic study of the biological underpinnings of social behavior. Sociobiologists in essence apply the principles of natural selection of the natural scientist Charles Darwin to the investigation of the human social behavior. They infer that specific forms of behavior become hereditarily connected to an organism if they play a significant role in is suitability to survive (Albrow, 1999). II. Socialization and the Self Individuals have diverse perceptions, sentiments, feelings and ideas about their identity and their attributes. However, these abilities of individuals to understand their position intrinsically and externally are not inborn. Sociologists argue that individuals establish their own description, which is the self. Both sociologists and psychologists have expressed interests in the process of individuals’ development and adjustment of the self because of social interactions (ibid). A. Sociological Frameworks in Understanding the Self Key sociologists who worked on the development of the self are Charles Horton Cooley, Geroge Herbert Mead and Erving Goffman. 1. Cooley: Looking- Glass Self Cooley promoted the belief that individuals learn who they are through interacting with others. The viewpoint of individuals on themselves then not simply comes from direct reflection of their personal attributes, but also from their impression of how others identify them. Cooley referred to this process of self development as the looking-glass self which indicates that the self is the outcome of social interactions with other people (Schaefer, 1995). 2. Mead: Stages of the Self Georger Herbert Mead continued the tradition of sociological thinking of Cooley. He further explored the interactionist theory and the sociological understanding of the self. Mead formulated a useful model of the process by which the self surfaces, defined by three discrete stages (Smelser, 1967). a. Symbols These are the signals, gestures, objects and language which shape the foundations of human communication. Children begin to understand the value of symbols through interacting with others (Schaefer, 1995). b. Play stage In this stage, children become capable of imitating the attitude and actions of others. This is the stage in which children emulate the roles of the individuals around them (ibid). c. Role taking This is the process of cognitively taking on the perspective of another, in so doing it enables an individual to respond from the imagined point of view (ibid). d. Game stage In this stage, the child begins to regard a number of tasks and relationships at the same time. At this instant in development, children grapple not merely their own social circumstances, but also of others around them. This is the final stage of development in Mead’s framework; the child can now act in response to several individuals of the social environment (ibid). e. Generalized others This is the term which refers to the child’s familiarization of the attitudes, perspectives, and expectations of the social order all together. In simple terms, this notion proposes that when an individual decide and eventually acts, he/she always takes into consideration an entire group of people (ibid). f. Significant others This refers to those individuals who are paramount in the development of the self (ibid). 3. Goffman: Presentation of the Self Erving Goffman suggested that various everyday activities of people involve efforts to express their identity and attributes to others (ibid). a. Impression management The process by which an individual learns to skew his/her self presentation of the self in order to construct unique appearances and gratify specific spectators (Dentler, 2002). b. Dramaturgical approach This refers to the perspective in which individuals can be viewed as akin to performers at work or in action (ibid). c. Face-work This maintains that the proper image can be significant to sustained social interaction; face-saving attitudes should be embarked upon if the self endures because of humiliation or some form of negative response (ibid). B. Psychological Models of the Self Psychologists have contributed to the interest of Cooley, Mead, Goffman and other sociologists in the growth of the self (Schaefer, 1995). 1. Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development Jean Piaget formulated four stages in the progress of children’s cognitive capacities or thought processes. a. Sensorimotor stage In this stage, young children make use of their senses to create innovations or discoveries (ibid). b. Preoperational stage In this stage, children begin to bring into play words and symbols to differentiate objects and thoughts (ibid). c. Concrete operational stage In this stage, children begin to learn and engage in abstract thinking (ibid). d. Formal operational In this stage, adolescents are skilled of complicated abstract thought and can handle ideas and values in a sensible manner (ibid). III. Socialization and the Human Life Cycle A. Levels of the Socialization Process The socialization course persists all the way through the stages of the human life cycle. 1. Rites of Passage This process stages and confirms changes in an individual’s status (Albrow, 1999). 2. Midlife Crisis This is a traumatic period in one’s life because of individuals’ sudden realization that they haven’t achieved basic objectives and aspirations and is only left with a little time to accomplish them (ibid). B. Anticipatory Socialization and Resocialization The progress of the social self is plainly a lifetime transformation. Two classifications of socialization take place at several points all the way through the life cycle, which are anticipatory socialization and resocialization. Anticipatory socialization refers to the courses of action of socialization in which an individual prepares for future statuses, professions and social networks. On the other hand, resocialization refers to the process of removing previous behavior patterns and assuming new ones as a piece of transition in one’s life (ibid). 1. Total institutions This refers to the institutions, such as penitentiaries, the armed forces, rehabilitation centers and convents which normalize all aspects of an individual’s life subjected to a sole authority (Watson, 2003). 2. Degradation ceremony This is the event that humiliates a person through stripping his/her of clothing, embellishments and other personal belongings (ibid). IV. The Different Institutions of Socialization The enduring and lifetime socialization process involves several various social forces which persuade individuals’ lives and modify their self-images (Smelser, 1967). A. Family This is the social institution that is intimately connected to the process of socialization. 1. Gender roles It refers to the expectations concerning the appropriate behavior, attitudes and activities of genders, the male and the female (Schaefer, 1995). 2. Reverse socialization This refers to the process in which individuals generally being socialized are simultaneously socializing their agents of socialization (ibid). B. School Functionalists emphasize that this social institution fulfills the responsibility of instructing the recruits the values and traditions of the larger society. For the conflict theorists, schools can increase the gap between social classes (Albrow, 1999). C. Peer Group Peer groups, such as acquaintances factions, youth organizations, and special interest societies, oftentimes guide adolescents in acquiring some degree of freedom from parents and other influential personalities (ibid). D. Mass Media Technological breakthroughs as radio, movies, music and television have become influential and dominant agents of socialization (ibid). E. Workplace An essential aspect of human socialization entails learning to behave properly within a profession or an occupation (ibid). 1. Career choice This implies selection of educational or technical training suitable for the preferred job (Schaefer, 1995). 2. Conditioning and commitment This takes place when an individual occupies the task-related function. Conditioning means hesitantly adapting to the more disagreeable realities of one’s occupation. Commitment refers to the wholehearted appreciation of fulfilling work-related tasks (ibid). 3. Continuous commitment At this stage, the job becomes an inseparable component of an individual’s self-identity (ibid). F. The State Sociologists have progressively recognized the relevance of the state or government at all stages as an agent of socialization due to its increasing influence on the human life cycle (ibid). Chapter 6 Groups and Organizations I. What are Groups? A group, according to sociologists, is a collectivity of individuals sharing similar values, beliefs and expectations. (Smelser,1967). A. Various Categories of Groups Sociologists have formulated a number of some functional distinctions between classifications of groups. 1. Primary and Secondary Groups Primary groups are those composed of a small number of people and identified through the personal and closeness of the association. On the other hand, secondary groups refer to an advised, distant organization since there is little room for personal and close social interaction and cooperation. 2. In-Groups and Out-Groups An in-group is a group or class wherein people feel and think they belong. On the other hand, more formally, an out-group is a group or class in which people do not feel belongingness (ibid). 3. Reference Groups This is any group that individuals make use of as a measuring tool for evaluating themselves and their own attitudes and behaviors (ibid). B. Investigating the Presence of Small Groups Investigating small groups is an essential aspect of sociological research. The concept of small group points to a group insignificant enough for all affiliates to interact and communicate all at the same time, that is, to converse with one another or at least be familiar with one another (Schaefer, 1995). 1. Size of a Group The size of the group has obvious social repercussions for members who do not have leadership inputs (ibid). a. Dyad Two-member group (ibid) b. Triad Three-member group (ibid) 2. Coalitions This is an interim or fixed alliance directed at a common objective (ibid). 3. Physical Environment Small groups cease to function in seclusion. They get together and communicate within a specified physical environment which has profound implications for group dynamics (Albrow, 1999). II. Comprehending Organizations A. Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies A formal organization is a particularly established group intended and oriented in the interests of optimal efficiency (Watson, 2003). 1. Emergence of Formal Organizations The initial large-scale formal organizations appeared to have surfaced as centralized administrations became more intricate (ibid). 2. Attributes of a Bureaucracy a. Division of Labor - Specialization of tasks or specialized professionals is assigned to perform specific tasks (ibid). b. Hierarchy of Authority - Bureucracies abide by this principle which implies that each position is subjected to the supervision of a senior or higher authority (ibid). c. Written Rules and Regulations - Rules and regulations are siginificant characteristics of bureaucracy. In principle, through such systems, a bureaucracy guarantees standardized performance of each work-related task (ibid). d. Impersonality - Bureaucratic principles resolve that authorities or officials carry out their duties without the special recognition of people as human beings (Schaefer, 1995). e. Employment Based on Technical Qualifications - In a bureaucracy, recruitment or staffing and selection are greatly based on technical qualifications rather than preferential treatment, and performance is evaluated against particular standards (ibid). 3. Bureaucratization as a Process - Sociologists have created the term bureaucratization to imply to the course of action by which a group, organization, or social movement turns out to be bureaucratic (ibid). a. Dominated by a Few b. The Janus Face of Bureaucracy - Bureaucratization impacts the average individual who functions in an organization (ibid). 4. Voluntary Organizations - This are organizations established based on common interest, whose constituents volunteer or even compensate to participate (Watson, 2003). B. Organizational Dynamics 1. Goal Multiplication - If an organization realizes that its objectives must transform, it will normally establish supplementary goals or expand upon its conventional objectives (ibid). 2. Goal Succession - This occurs when a group or organization has recognized or otherwise. It should afterwards identify a completely new set of goals that can substantiate its existence (ibid). Chapter 14 Family and Intimate Relationships I. The Family: Present in all Culture, but Diverse This basic unit of society is present in all societies and culture. However, the structure and organization of the family greatly vary (Schaefer, 1995). II. A. Family Composition Definition of the family has undergone transformations, from the traditional one to the modern (ibid). 1. Nuclear Family This is a family structure compose of married couples and unmarried children (ibid). 2. Extended Family A family in which in addition to the parents and children are relatives such as grandparents, aunts or uncles residing in the same domicile (ibid). 3. Monogamy -This is a form of marriage in which a woman and a man are wedded only to each other (ibid). a. Serial monogamy - In this concept, an individual is permitted to have numerous partners in his/her lifetime given that he/she must have only one spouse at a time (ibid). 4. Polygamy - There are cultures which tolerate individuals to have more than a few spouses at the same time (Albrow, 1999). a. Polygyny - This refers to the marriage of a man to several women simultaneously (ibid). b. Polyandry - This refers to the marriage of a woman to more than a few husbands at the same time (ibid). B. Descent Patterns 1. Kinship - This concept is culturally acquired and not necessarily determined by biological or marital bonds (Schaefer, 1995). 2. Bilateral Descent - This implies that both sides of an individual’s family are acknowledged as equally important (ibid). 3. Patrilineal Descent - This means that only the father’s family members are significant in terms of property, birthright and the establishment of emotional networks (ibid). 4. Matrilineal Descent - This implies that only the mother’s next of kin are important (ibid). C. Family Residence 1. Neolocal - This is a pattern of residence which anticipates married couples to establish a separate domestic unit (ibid). 2. Patrilocal - This is a residence arrangement in which married couples live with the husband’s parents (ibid). 3. Matrilocal - This is a residence pattern in which married couples reside with the wife’s parents (ibid). D. Authority Patterns 1. Patriarchy - This refers to a society wherein the males are expected to dominate in all family decision-making (Smelser, 1967). 2. Matriarchy - This refers to an authority pattern in which the women prevail over the men (ibid). 3. Egalitarianism - In this authority pattern, both the spouses are considered equal (ibid). II. Importance of the Family A. Reproduction Through reproduction, the family contributes to the survival of the society (Schaefer, 1995). B. Protection The family takes on the responsibility to protect or secure and rear children (ibid). C. Socialization Parents and relatives monitor a child’s conduct and behavior and convey the customs, values and language of a culture (ibid). D. Regulation of Sexual Behavior Normative principles of sexual behavior are most defined within the family unit (ibid). E. Affection and Companionship The family provides members with compassionate and personal relationships and supports them to feel contented and secure (ibid). F. Providing of Social Status Individuals inherit a social status because of the family background and status of their parents and immediate relatives (ibid). III. Marriage and Family in the United States A. Courtship and Mate Selection 1. Aspects of Mate Selection a. endogamy - This specifies that an individual must find a mate within his/her group (Albrow, 1999). b. exogamy - This requires individual to select mate outside of their group (ibid). c. incest taboo - This is a social norm general to practically all cultures which prohibit sexual relationships between culturally and biologically specified relatives (ibid). 2. The Love Relationship - Love and mate selection do not essentially happen together. Majority of the world’s cultures prefer mate selection to aspects other than romantic feelings (Schaefer, 1995). B. Parenthood and Grandparenthood - Weaning and rearing children are universal functions of the family; however, cultures differ in assigning these responsibilities to the members of the family (ibid). C. Adoption - This is a process that permits the transfer of legal rights, obligations and privileges of parenthood from lawful parents to new authorized parents (ibid). D. Dual-Career Families - This is a family condition in which married couples have two spouses active in the salaried workforce (ibid). E. Variations in Family Life 1. Social Class Differences - There are differences in family organizations among social classes, particularly in the United States (Albrow, 1999). 2. Racial and Ethnic Differences - Family subsistence and lifestyle among racial and ethnic groups have been greatly influenced by their inferior status (ibid). IV. Divorce in the United States A. Statistical Trends in Divorce 1. Emotional Divorce - This represents the dilemma of the weakening marriage (Schaefer, 1995). 2. Legal Divorce - This is based on the rationale on which the marriage will be broken up (ibid). 3. Economic Divorce - This deals with the distribution of financial and material properties (ibid). 4. Co-parental Divorce - This counts judgments concerning child custody and visitation privileges (ibid). 5. Community Divorce - This is the adjustments in acquaintances and institutional networks that a divorced individual endures (ibid). 6. Psychic Divorce - This focuses on the individual’s effort to reclaim independence and self-respect (ibid). B. Factors Associated with Divorce - There is no comprehensive factor that could explain the increasing rates of divorce in the United States. However, perhaps the most significant factor has been the greater approval and acceptance of divorce (ibid). V. Alternative Lifestyles - Family structure and organization have undergone changes which led to the emergence of alternative family lifestyles (ibid). A. Cohabitation - This is the arrangement in which male-female couples choose to live together without the sanctity of marriage (Albrow, 1999). B. Remaining Single - This points to individuals who maintain an unmarried lifestyle due to their increasing economic independence (ibid). C. Gay Relationships - Homosexual relationships differ in arrangement and structure (ibid). D. Marriage without Children - Childlessness vary in definition; there is what they call ‘child-free’ or those couples who deliberately choose not to have children and ‘childless’ which refers to couples who want to have children but are incapable to (Schaefer, 1995). E. Single-Parent Families - This is an alternative family lifestyle in which there is only one parent present to rear the children (ibid). VI. Social Policy and the Family: Domestic Violence (ibid). Works Cited Albrow, M. (1999). Sociology: The Basics. London: Routledge. Dentler, R. A. (2002). Practicing Sociology: Selected Fields. Westport, CT: Praeger. Schaefer, R. T. (1995). Sociology . New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Smelser, N. J. (1967). Sociology: An Introduction. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Watson, T. J. (2003). Sociology, Work, Industry. London: Routledge. Read More