Challenges to Conventional Organisational Theory - Essay Example

Organisational Theory Challenges to Conventional Organisational Theory An organisation is a group of people working towards a common goal. This group of people hope to achieve more working together than they could do if they were all to work individually and then add up the results of their efforts. An organisation is a group of individuals who have come together under the supervision and coordination of a management, to carries out a task in order to achieve a common goal that has been pre-established as its main reason for existence. In order to classify an entity as Organisation, it should have a goal identified. This can be a product or a service. The persons working for a profitable organisation will receive rewards in the form of salaries. If it is a non profitable organisation like The Salvation Army then the rewards could simply be prestige, social interaction or just the satisfaction of helping others.. “An organisation is a group that makes up a legal entity which has boundaries, holds responsibilities to others, can be liable for all sorts of damages, and thus can be taken to court if they conduct their business in an inappropriate manner which goes against morals, has ill effects on individuals or other organisations” (Evan Sycamnias - Evolution of organisational theory). All groups are not organisations. Consider the case of a football or cricket team. Even though they form a group and work for a common aim to win the matches, they cannot be referred as an organisation. It can be considered as a sub group of an organisation, the football club. The goals of an organisation are difficult to define. From a sociological perspective we could think of organisations as providing services, generating wealth and providing infrastructure to the members of the society. The goals of organisations are multi- faceted and not readily amenable to definition. In order to make a group an organisation the group should follow certain criteria. The group should be properly registered under the government authorities who will Organisation Theory 2 provide them the registration codes and other details. An organisation is thus become a legal entity and will have certain responsibilities and duties which abide the by the laws and regulations of the country. Organisational culture can be defined as of the shared knowledge, values, and beliefs of the members of the organisation. Organisations can be of two types: Profitable and non profitable organisations. Multinational corporate companies or manufactures of certain product or services can be called as profitable organisations. Salvation Army, LTTE in Sri Lanka, Taleban in Afghanistan etc. can be called as non profitable organisations working for a common aim. Modern century witnessed lot of revolutions in both types of organisational theory. The principles of profitable organisational theory have undergone drastic changes in modern world. Professor Donaldson’s Statistico-Organisational theory is the first major new organisational theory since the 1970s and is set to challenge the academic community around the world with its innovative approach. As per this theory organisations are statistical machines. This theory is based on the laws of statistics and applied in organisational behaviour and decision making. The basis for statistico-organisational theory is around the accurate interpretation of the data on which organisations base their decisions. Using these leaders can avoid false interpretations which lead to poor decision making. Consider an example in which somebody running a book shop in a place where there are a lot colleges and schools and also no other book shop. Can we consider the performance of the counter sales guy as excellent based on the number of books he sold? Can the same guy keep the same standards in another book shop which have lot of competitions from other shops? Here the surrounding statistical data has to be Organisation Theory 3 considered to evaluate the performance rather than the volume of sales. As per the conventional organisation theory such data will not give much importance. Much of the basis for statistico-organisational theory is around the accurate interpretation of the data on which organisations base their decisions. Another mistake the conventional organization theory makes is in the measurement. Normally as per this theory people will calculate profit as difference between sales and costs. But there will be at least 10% each of uncertainty in both sales and cost. So these two factors together will give us a completely wrong figure as profit. “Statistico-organisational theory will begin to have an impact on the business world with AGSM making a “distinct contribution” to intellectual change” (Lachlan Colquhoun - Groundbreaking new organisational theory) Feminism, Post modernism, Symbolic interpretivism are some new approaches in non profitable organizational theory. Feminism is the belief of political, social and economical equality of women. Though women are inferior to men physiologically, as per the feminists women can do anything like the men and the gender discrimination is opposed by them. The history of feminism has started from the nineteenth century. Feminism has changed the theories of organization. Feminist activists have campaigned for womens legal rights such as rights of contract, property rights, voting rights; for womens right to bodily integrity and autonomy, for abortion rights, and for reproductive rights; for protection from domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape; for workplace rights, including maternity leave and equal pay; and against other forms of discrimination. Feminism is grounded on the belief that women are demoralised by comparison with men, and that their domination is in some way illegitimate or unjustified. Organisation Theory 4 Under the umbrella of this general characterization there are, however, many interpretations of women and their domination. Feminism is both an intellectual commitment and a political movement that seeks justice for women. However, there are many different kinds of feminism. Feminists have disagreement with sexism which is prevalent in organisational theory. They disagree about the meaning to be a woman or a man as per the organisational theory. Motivated by the quest for social justice, feminist inquiry provides a wide range of perspectives on social, cultural, and political phenomena. Important topics for feminist theory and politics include: the body, class and work, disability, the family, globalization, human rights, popular culture, race and racism, reproduction, science, the self, sex work, and sexuality. As per the organisational theory, male domination over female was evident in all the categories listed above. Organisational theory always upheld the dominance of male over female and feminist began to question such social setup. For them women are not meant to limit themselves in the family alone. They wanted to spread their wings like the male in every aspect of life which is in contradiction with the traditional laws. We can see that rapid changes were occurred in the feminist movements in the end of the nineteenth century. The ideologies and the objectives of the movement varied as per the demands of the society. Feminist movement can be divided into three categories. First-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century in the United Kingdom and the United States. It focused on the promotion of equal contract and property rights for women and the opposition to traditional marriage and ownership of married women (and their children) by their husbands. As per the organizational theory, married women Organisation Theory 5 and children are supposed to be under the control of their husbands. As per feminists, they also have equal right on children and they are not owed to their husbands. They like to sustain as a free entity. They demanded equal rights for them both in the family and the society. The first wave focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as political inequalities. The first wave of feminists, in contrast to the second wave, was hostile to abortion. Second-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity beginning in the early 1960s and lasting through the late 1980s. The second wave was largely concerned with other issues ofequality, such as ending discrimination. Second-wave feminists saw womens cultural and political inequalities linked and encouraged women to understand aspects of their personal lives. For them the total domination of men over women in all the aspects of life cannot be allowed. As per the traditions of organizational theory male has got the final word in the entire family issues. This is discrimination for them. They are not intended to give birth to children alone. They also have all the peculiarities and features as men except the muscle power. The phrase "Women’s Liberation" was first used in the United States in 1964. During this period a strong belief developed that women are victims of a false belief system that requires them to find identity and meaning in their lives through their husbands and children. Such a system causes women to completely lose their identity in that of their family. Americas post-war (Second World War) economic boom had led to the development of new technologies that were supposed to make household work less difficult, but that often had the result of making womens work less meaningful and valuable. Organisation Theory 6 Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, arising as a response to failures of the second wave and also as a response to the setback against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. The third wave has its origins in the mid-1980s.Third-wave feminism seeks to challenge or avoid the second waves essentialist definitions of femininity, which over-emphasize the experiences of upper middle-class white women. Post-feminism describes a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism. This term used to explain the setback of second wave feminism. Post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to todays society. The setback against second wave feminism in the 1980s has successfully re-defined the objectives of feminism. Many of the women problems are illusions, constructed by the media without reliable evidence as per post feminism. According to them, this type of backlash is a historical trend, recurring when it appears that women have made substantial gains in their efforts to obtain equal rights. Post-feminism gives the impression that equality has been achieved and that feminists can now focus on something else entirely, rather than going for the women rights. Several sub-movements of feminist ideology have developed over the years; liberal feminism, radical feminism, black feminism, etc. Liberal feminism ensures the equality of men and women through political and legal reform. It is an individualistic form of feminism, which focuses on women’s ability to show and maintain their equality through their own actions and choices not only in the society but in the family as well. Liberal feminism uses the personal interactions between men and women to transform society. According to liberal feminists, all women are capable of asserting their ability to achieve equality. They believed that it is possible to change the society without altering the structure of society. Issues important to liberal Organisation Theory 7 feminists include reproductive and abortion rights, sexual harassment, voting, education, "equal pay for equal work", affordable childcare, affordable health care, and bringing to light the frequency of sexual and domestic violence against women. Radical feminism describes as sexist, as the defining feature of women’s domination. Radical feminists think that there is a male-based authority and power structure which is responsible for domination and inequality. Some radical feminists see no alternatives other than the total uprooting and reconstruction of society in order to achieve their goals which in other words total destruction of the old organizational theory.. Though it emphasizes the difference between women and men they feel that difference are due to psychological reasons. Separatist feminism is a form of radical feminism that does not support heterosexual relationships. Its supports argue that the sexual differences between men and women are irresolvable. They do not feel that men can make positive contributions to the feminist movement. Black feminism argues that sexism, class domination and racism are bound together. Forms of feminism that strive to overcome sexism and class oppression but ignore race can discriminate against many people, including women, through racial bias. They argued that the liberation of black women entails freedom for all people, since it would require the end of racism, sexism, and class domination. Most of the feminist movements were largely white middle-class movements and had generally ignored domination based on racism and classism. Though the feminists argued for the rights of women in general, they were more focused on Organisation Theory 8 white women rather than the black. In fact black women experienced a different and more intense kind of domination from that of white women. Feminist criticisms of mens contributions to child care and domestic labor in the Western middle class are typically centered on the idea that it is unfair for women to be expected to perform more than half of a households domestic work and child care when both members of the relationship also work outside the home. Several studies provide statistical evidence that the financial income of married men does not affect their rate of attending to household duties. Feminist theology is a movement that reconsiders the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of religions from a feminist perspective. Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about God, determining womens place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying images of women in the religions sacred texts. Christian feminism is another branch of feminist theology which seeks to interpret and understand Christianity in light of the equality of women and men. Because this equality has been historically ignored, Christian feminists believe their contributions are necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity. They argued that the parish priest position can be executed by women also. Male domination in such areas is not in the teachings of Bible or Jesus Christ. While there is no standard set of beliefs among Christian feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of biologically-determined characteristics such as sex. They argued for more involvement of women in church activities such as priest-hood and bishop-hood Organisation Theory 9 which is against the traditions. Their major issues are the ordination of women, male dominance in Christian marriage, and claims of moral deficiency and inferiority of abilities of women compared to men. They also are concerned with the balance of parenting between mothers and fathers and the overall treatment of women in the church. As per feminists, Male domination is more evident in Islam. An Islamic male can marry more than one woman and can divorce them without having genuine reasons. They opposed such systems and argued that if the male can go for more than one woman then the female also can do the same. Islamic feminism is concerned with the role of women in Islam and aims for the full equality of all Muslims, regardless of gender, in public and private life. Islamic feminists advocate womens rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded in an Islamic framework. Although rooted in Islam, the movements pioneers have also utilized secular and Western feminist discourses and recognize the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement. Advocates of the movement seek to highlight the deeply rooted teachings of equality in the Quran. They started to question the interpretation of Islamic teaching through the Quran, towards the creation of a more equal and just society. Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal, and social status of women within Judaism and to open up new opportunities for religious experience and leadership for Jewish women. Feminist movements, with varying approaches and successes, have opened up within all major branches of Judaism. In its modern form, the movement can be Organisation Theory 10 traced to the early 1970s in the United States. The main issues for early Jewish feminists in these movements were the exclusion from the all-male prayer group Modern feminist science is based on the view that many differences between the sexes are based on socially constructed gender identities rather than on biological sex differences. The relationship between men and feminism has been complex. Men have taken part in significant responses to feminism in each wave of the movement. There have been positive and negative reactions and responses, depending on the individual man and the social context of the time. Some Feminists have argued that men should be allowed, or even be encouraged, to participate in the feminist movement. Other female feminists argue that men cannot be feminists simply because they are not women. They maintain that men are granted inherent privileges that prevent them from identifying with feminist struggles, thus making it impossible for them to identify with feminists Sources 1. Evan Sycamnias - Evolution of organisational theory- Retrieved on 12/11/08 http://www.uplink.com.au/lawlibrary/Documents/Docs/Doc2.html 2. Lachlan Colquhoun - Groundbreaking new organisational theory- Retrieved on 12/11/08 http://www2.agsm.edu.au/agsm/web.nsf/Content/AGSMMagazine-GroundbreakingNew Read More