The Parameter of Linguistic Cognitive Concepts of Semantics - Essay Example

English Language: Making Meaning English Language: Making Meaning Introduction: The aim of this paper is to explore the significance and, at the same time, to interpret what the term “tree” means and the process how it makes the cognitive sense that it refers. The objective is carried out through the parameter of linguistic cognitive concepts of semantics. This method necessarily includes the cognitive concepts of semantics such as prototype, metaphor, metonymy, etc in order to test the hypothesis that is composed at the beginning of this essay. The priority of cognitive approaches to test this hypothesis lies in the fact that cognitive approaches are more apposite to trace the crucial but slight changes in the notions of a word and therefore, all-embracing to encapsulate maximum circumference of the meaning. Cognitive approaches always consider a language as a living object that ultimately yields relative meaning in relation to its environments and context. Therefore semantic interpretation is to be explained from the reality of an object and how “the human brain processes the information it receives by using a series of very specific cognitive mechanisms” (Jaen 2). Indeed there have been many studies and theories on Semantics or the study of the meaning of words and structures. The concept of the ‘signifier’ and the ‘signified’ forms the basis of the derivation of meaning for each words or structures. The fact that a single signifier can have one or many signified adds to the complexity of the process of meaning derivation. Some studies have proved that there is a close relation between the sound pattern and the linguistic pattern of a given word or structure. Semantic Theories and the Cognitive Interpretation of the Term “Tree” There are linguists who argue that the meaning of a word is closely related to the perception level or the cognitive level of understanding and experiences of the hearer. The prototype theory holds that the process of attributing meaning to a given word or structure is “principled and depends on the ‘real world attributes’ of what is perceived, and also upon the characteristics of the perceptual apparatus itself” (Johnson 12). One needs to differentiate and contrast the attributes of the perceived images with the other images to make this process of meaning derivation. In fact, the prototypes (‘the most representative members of a category’) is linked with the cultural models that shape one’s perceptions and knowledge representation and therefore each perceived image or experience “serve as prototypes for understanding real-world experiences” (Holland and Quinn 22). The authors hold that there is a close link between culture and cognition of an individual. According to them the proposition schemas and the image schemas are at work, either separately or together, in the formation of meaning; they refer to schemas as “reconceptualizations of given cultural models, or components of such models, for particular cognitive purposes” (Holland and Quinn 25). The cognitive process of the individuals can vary based on the difference in the culture in which each one is brought up. For instance, when a religious minded person hears the term ‘tree’, he/she is most likely to associate the term with some trees in front of a church or temple, as that perceived image is strong rooted in his/her perception and cognition. The Hypothesis: The Term ‘Tree’ and what Makes it a “Tree” The basic hypothesis for the formation of the meaning of the term ‘tree’ is that the signifier refers to a living plant that has branches and leaves on it. However each one is likely to receive the perceived images of any particular tree to which he or she is in deep proximity (For instance when some perceive the image of a palm tree there could be many who think of a birch tree). Thus the process of forming meaning for a signifier is very much dependant on the most dominant perceived images that the individuals have registered in their cognition through his/ her knowledge of the ‘real world attributes’ of what is being already perceived by him. Prototype theory stresses on the natural categorization of the perceived mental images and attributes of a given word or structure and so the process of differentiation or identification through contrast is very much significant for the right formation of the meaning of words. For example, when a person hears the word ‘tree’ he should be able to differentiate the perceived image with that of objects having similar attributes such as bushes. The perception of individual varies with experiences; thus the signifier ‘tree’ may bring into one’s mind the picture of a family tree or a Christmas tree. Applying the prototype theory to the word ‘tree’, one is likely to come across a number of perceived images, depending upon one’s experiences and perceptions. When analysing the prototype- definition of the word ‘tree’, three components can be spotted out. 1. The signifier ‘tree’ brings into one’s mind the picture of a real tree. 1. It appears to him as a family tree or a Christmas tree. 2. The word, ‘tree’ brings a ‘sound effect’ (that which appeals to the psychological ear.) to the hearer’ mind. (1.) The word ‘tree’ is capable of producing the effect of a real tree in the hearer. (2.) The statement brings another different image of tree in the hearer. (3.) It brings the sound effect which, accompanied with image brings the concept or the sign ‘tree’. The statements, 1to 3 are proficient in fulfilling the concept or the sign ‘tree’. But if the first two statements are selected the speakers will be confused to interpret real tree from it. These statements can be again represented with their difference in weight, that is, (1.) being strongest and (2.) weakest in influencing the speakers. Here, from the given statements it is clear that they are confusing and vague itself in comprehension. The Experiment: Conducted to Prove the Hypothesis In order to test the hypothesis the following experiment is to be conducted. While designing the experiment the following objectives receive the prime concern: 1. Process of formation of the meaning of “Tree” in Classical Semantic Approach 2. Traditional Semantic Approach 3. To find out whether the sound effect accompanied with the image brings the concept or the sign ‘tree.’ The prototype theory behind the formation of the term ‘tree’ can be proved with the help of experiments that could be conducted on people who belong to different age groups and people who are part of different cultural milieu. Experiment-1 Proposed reaction: a 1-2 year child is capable of identifying the relationship between the various supporting materials (leaves, the sound of the word ‘tree’ etc.,) provided for him/her. As part of the experiment, a1-2 year child is selected and subjected him for the experiment. First of all the child is allowed to hear the word ‘tree’ and analyse the changes that occur in him. But after this experiment it was understood that the sound of the word ‘tree’ did not evoke any perceived images in the child. It is also understood that that a 1-2 year old child has not framed any images of the tree in his mind. But when the child is shown the picture of a leaf, he could identify the green coloured leaves situate in his surroundings, but not the whole concept ‘tree.’ However, a picture of the tree along with the sound pattern of the word will be capable of forming some kind of perceived images of tree in him/her. Anticipated results: a child of 1-2 years is not at all capable of identifying the tree from the sound, but the picture forms some kind of perceived images in him/her. Experiment -2 Proposed reaction: whether the primary school students are capable of identifying the relationship between the various supporting materials provided for them. When the same experiment continued with a group of primary school students, the same moment they hear the word, they are likely to associate the tree with their immediate environment – they will be re-conceptualizing the image of tree in their house courtyard or their school compound. They were capable of bringing the image of the tree to their minds when they saw some furniture. Different furniture reminded them of different trees and their various uses. The same thing had occurred, when they were shown some leaves. The result of the experiment with the leaves was sudden, and the students recollected the images of various trees to their mind all on a sudden. Anticipated results: after experimenting on the primary school students, it is understood that their perception of ‘tree’ is somewhat faster than that of a 1-2 year old child. Experiment -3 Proposed reaction: tell the word to a group of graduate students and find out which tree comes to their mind when they hear the word ‘tree.’ The experiment continued by telling the word ‘tree’ to a group of graduate students and asks them which tree came into their mind. Most of the students are likely to tell the names of different trees, the perceived images of which will be dominant in their minds. They are also likely to associate the term ‘tree’ with other meanings such as some plants that resemble a tree, a diagram of hierarchical structure, a family tree or a wooden support. This exercise will underline the fact that the perceivers are likely to derive different signifiers on the same word or structure. Anticipated results: there has been gained a positive feed back form the graduate students who could easily identify tree from the supporting materials. So as to wind up the experiment, it is clear that the perception of a ‘tree’ is differed with 1-2 years old, in a primary school boy and in graduates. The child could not identify the tree properly. But the primary school students and graduate students could identify the various image of a three. The relation between prototype theory and the differentiation aspect can very well be evaluated by showing a group of people some pictures of trees as well as objects that resemble a tree. There could be many students who will be able to identify the right pictures of trees; on the other hand, some will be mistaking a bush for a tree whereas there could be others who answer that a diagram is a tree as it has some of the similar attributes that a tree has. Thus, all the above given examples show that the prototype perception theory of the meaning formation of a word offers better explanation to meaning derivation than the sound theory. Relation between ‘Signifier’ and ‘Signified’ of the Term “Tree” Whenever one hears the word ‘tree’, it is capable of producing the concept in one’s mind with branches and leaves and a trunk. But when it is reached for a discussion regarding perception and think about what makes a tree, even the intelligentsia will be struggling to find a proper answer to this question. It has been agreed upon by most of the linguists that each and every objects can be interpreted as signs that contain a specific sound quality, enable one to identify a particular object. There are some who make the opinion that one makes meanings through the creation and interpretation of the ‘signs’. These signs appear in the form of words, images, sounds, doors, flavours, acts or objects. Though they are in the given form, one is in total confusion to analyze what they really are. Regarding the word ‘tree’ and ‘what makes it a tree?’ one can reach in the hypothesis that a person gets the picture of a tree in his mind not because of the relation between the name and the object but because of the link between the concept and the sound pattern. By sound pattern, it is not meant the sound of the real sense that appeals to our physical ear but the one that appeal to the psychological impression of the sound in our sensual ear. A sign assumes its form only when the signifier and the signified are united. But the “the relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary.” (Signifier and Signified: Discussion). The process in which the signifier and the signified are united is called as the ‘signification’. The sign or the object is taking shape in the mind of a person, when the process of ‘signification’ is occurred. Regarding the example ‘tree’, one can see that ‘tree’ is the signifier and the signified concept is that trees like oak, rose wood, cider etc. The same signifier (the word ‘tree’) can be used for other different signified. To make it clear, a tree may accompany with the family tree, showing the hierarchal order of a family or it may be a tree used for particular diagrams. An effective combination of a particular signifier with a particular signified forms the different pictures in the minds of the people. Each joining is capable of producing different pictures that are more realistic and qualitative signs. The signifier can be considered as a ‘spoken word’ or a ‘sound pattern’. The one comparable sign-system is writing itself is insufficient to explain the signs clearly, and the sound pattern of the different words that brings the concept. The written signs have been kept with them the sound pattern, and in the word ‘tree’, each letter produces different sounds, enabling the comprehension of the concept. It is clear that a written word will signify a sound rather than a concept and as such signifier and the signified are related like writing and sound. Some of the linguists have been remarked that the meaning of the word ‘tree’ depends on its relation with other words within the system (such as ‘bush’). The word ‘tree’ brings the perception into one’s mind about the tree, which he has kept in the mind and, at the same time it offers the dissimilarities, when compared with the other trees. The attributes like the sound pattern and the perception can convey the concept ‘tree’ to one’s mind. Some famous linguists have exerted that linguistic sign is totally immaterial, but were not ready to regard it as ‘abstract’. They strongly believed that the linguistic signs exist and if they exist the words have no value. The value of a coin lies not in the metal by which it is made of. “The principle of identification through contrast has been central to the synchronic description of language throughout the 20th century.” (Johnson). When one attempts to bring the word ‘tree’ under this theory, it is understood that the perception of it takes place when he finds out the differences of it with the picture of the tree that he had already perceived in his mind. When comparing it with his perception he finds the real value of it and will be capable of recognizing the real ‘tree’. These types of contrastive studies were really helpful for the development of the language. Whenever a person resorts to the contrastive analysis, he identifies it with the other objects of the same kind. To interpret what makes a tree, it is sufficient to have the awareness of the cognitive psychology and its application in the linguistics. The perception of the tree has been dependent on: “colours, events, actions, perceived spatial relations, causation, social institutions, syntactic entities (nouns, verbs, subjects, grammatical constructions) phonological entities, mental images, etc “.(Lakoff). A man is perceived of his concept about the tree by attempting a comparison of the colour that he kept in his mind and by finding out the similarities between the events and actions etc. While analyzing these things, one can also analyze the phonological entities and the syntactic entities. As perception has been directly connected with the brain, the mental images also should be verified for this purpose. The social institutions like school, family etc., have prominent roles in forming the perception/his understanding about what makes a tree. The other significant element that plays a vital role in one’s perception is his perceived spatial relations. How the object, that is, the tree has been linked with its surroundings is very valuable for this study. The special relations enable the sign to the real one. The linguists prefer the boundary theory rather than the problematical existence of the categories. It is clear from the words of W. Labov when he says: “Instead of taking as problematical the existence of the categories, we can turn to the nature of the boundaries between them” (Labov p.340-73). A linguist is more interested in applying these theories rather than the category theory. All linguistic material can be subjected for the categorical view and it is easier to bring it under this type of study. The psychological study is very prominent regarding the prototype theory. If the psychological validity of prototype theory is applied to the word ‘tree’, it is viewed that perception has been related to the psychological aspects and the same helps him to form the clear outline of the concept which he kept in his mind. When he hears the word ‘tree’, a ‘sort of’ and ‘kind of’ images will sprout out in his mind and he selects the best from those images and assumes that it is the real, as it is matching to his imagination and conception. Prototype theories are also explaining the lexical and the grammatical levels to discourse and textual levels of analysis which makes possible the analysis of the word ‘tree’. The perception of a child with regard to the word ‘tree’ will be somewhat different form the perception of an old man. It varies from person to person and from age to age. It will be clear with example of a child’s perception of the word ‘cat’. The first image of a cat that has been imprinted in the boy’s mind is connected with the sound it produces. The child recognizes the animal mainly with its sound. He will never attribute that sound to any other animal. To the child, what he feels is that he can find out many ‘core’ features which take the ‘cat’ away from other animals. "... meanings which were closer to the core, that is, were more basic in meaning, were more likely to be transferred than those which were furthest from the core. " (Lakoff) He tries to prove it with the examples ‘kick the bucket’ and ‘kick the ball’. These two examples prove the problem of perception. If he has not understood the real meaning of the phrases, it will not be possible for him to interpret the sentences correctly. He may suspect it as the real bucket and the kicking. Same is the case with the word ‘tree’. Here one attributes the special features that he can find in tree. It may be the sound effect, similarities with the perception of his mind, the differences that rose against other objects or may be his own psychological conception. Whatever may be the reason for such kind of perceptions, it is sure that the word ‘tree’ produces different signifiers and signs. Thus, in the case of the word ‘tree’ it promotes different signifiers with only one sign. The images of various trees which are prototypes of the trees like birch, oak and the general concept; trees with branches, leaves and the trunk take birth in the minds of those who hear the word ‘tree’. Works Cited Holland, Dorothy C., and Quinn, Naomi. Cultural Models in Language and Thought. 1987. Johnson, R K. Prototype Theory, Cognitive Linguistics and Pedagogical Grammar: Prototype Theory. 29 Jan. 2009. . Edition: 3, illustrated. Cambridge University Press. Labov, W. The Boundaries of words and their meanings in C-J. N. Bailey and R.W. Shuy (Eds.), 1973. Lakoff, G. Categories and Cognitive Models Series A, No. 96, Trier: Linguistic Agency University Trier. 1982. Signifier and Signified: Discussion. Changing Minds.com. 2009. 29 Jan. 2009. . Read More