Comparing Research Methods - Essay Example

Comparing Research Methods Assignment I: Comparing scientific and social research articles Research provides the theoretical structure for understanding information reported by individual practitioners, and it tests assumptions and observations, and cerates new knowledge. There is variety of research approaches, and research articles are written to contribute to the knowledge base of the discipline, and the topic tend to be highly specific in nature, which is written for the scholarly community, rather than a general audience. (Research articles and refereed (peer reviewed) journals, 2007). In principle there are two models of research, qualitative and quantitative, and generally quantitative research is used in scientific studies and qualitative research is used in social studies. A scholarly article offers the full report, often including charts, graphs, methodology etc., contains valuable reference lists, and describes the research process and methods used, so readers can judge for themselves whether they think the information provided seems relevant and reliable. Because there are various types of research covering diverse subjects, analyzing and critiquing scholarly articles are really challenging. However, an attempt has been made to analyze the style, method of research, and structure of research article, encompassing entirely different subjects, through comparing article by Malinauskas et al (2007) and Rogar (2005). Brief overview of articles Article by Melinauskas et al (2007): A survey of energy drink consumption patterns among college students. Malinauskas and colleagues conducted a survey of energy drink consumption patterns among college students to ascertain prevalence and frequency of energy drink use for six situations. They hypothesize that although energy drinks are targeted to young consumers, and its popularity is increasing since the 1997 debut of energy drink ‘Red Bull’, there has been little research regarding energy drink consumption patterns among college students in the United States. Advertisements proclaim that “energy drinks are designed to give the consumer a “jolt” of energy provided by the combination of stimulants and “energy boosters” that they provide, including caffeine, herbal extracts such as guarana, ginseng, and ginkgo biloba, B vitamins, amino acids such as taurine, amino acid derivatives such as carnitine, and sugar derivatives including glucuronalactone and ribose” (Malinauskas et al, 2007, p.3). Studies had shown that energy drinks had energizing effects among 18 to 55 year old participants, and caffeine was found to be the primary constituent responsible for these effects. Although caffeine in energy drinks provide the consumer the desirable effects of improved cognitive performance and mood, greater caffeine consumption has been found to have detrimental health consequences. Hence, this study aims to determine (1) energy drink consumption patterns among college students; (2) prevalence and frequency of energy drink use for six situations, namely: for insufficient sleep, to increase energy (in general), while studying, driving long periods of time, drinking with alcohol while partying, and to treat a hangover; (3) and prevalence of adverse side effects and energy drink use dose effects among college students using energy drink. The study revealed that “side effects of consuming energy drinks, including experiencing jolt and crash episodes, palpitations, and headaches occur in many energy drink users. However, a dose effect was found only for jolt and crash episodes” (ibid, p.8). Social science article by Rogan, B-- An Entangled Object: The picture Postcard as Souvenir and collectible, exchange and ritual communication The study by Rogan (2005), as a supplement to his earlier studies on the habit of collecting postcards during the “Golden Age,” analyses the beginning, growth, popularity, and current status of picture post card industry and its social relevance. Main emphasis of the essay is on “other side of the card,” at the messages inscribed by their users, than the picture side and discusses the relevance of both pictures and messages in terms of “exchange ritual and communication” (Rogan, 2005, p.3). It is argued that earlier analysis of the subject concentrated on “iconography, representational and ideological connections, production techniques, distribution networks, and collecting modes of picture postcards, rather than their “broader social and cultural contexts” (Rogan, 2005, p.2). Picture postcard fad is viewed as a progeny of industrialization and a cohort of consumerism at the beginning of 20th century, with short life span between 1895 and 1920 christened as the ‘Golden Age’ of the picture postcard. The ‘postcard cult’ of 1900s generated multi-billion businesses in Europe, as it was estimated that “seven billion cards passed through the world’s post office in 1905,” which do not include all the cards that were bought and put in to albums, without being mailed (Carline 1972; Ripert and Frere 1983 as cited by Rogan, 2005, p.4). Postcard carries a replica of the socio-cultural scenario of a place, serves as a sign of life, and acts as perfect medium for short communications with a ‘high expressive value.’ Though postcard industry became a big business, that ‘quickly created finely meshed, worldwide networks,’ many factors like, adverse effects of World War I on tourism industry, development of new communications media like telegraph and telephone, and less enthusiasm among card collectors, reduced demand for picture postcards by the end of 1920s. Even though aesthetic appreciation of picture motifs popularized picture postcards, as a communication medium it carried messages more or less void of information, and served as a sign of life and a reminder of social relationships. Like mobile phone, most popular modern personal communication medium, the postcards acted as a communications system based on ‘individual access to the medium’ and ‘the text-messaging system allowed communication independently of time and place’ (ibid, p.8). Rogar points out that even though popularity of the picture postcard was due to several factors, analytically these factors can be categorized into the ‘aesthetics of the card, the card as a souvenir, the card as a collectible, and the card as a means of communication,’ which were “enmeshed in a tangle of relationships” (ibid p.18). Hence, Rogan suggests that a ‘holistic approach to the postcard should take account of the embeddedness of the object in contemporary culture’ and view postcard as “an emissary of this culture” (ibid p. 3). Research methods used: Malinauskas et al (2007) used a questionnaire survey among randomly selected university students in the US. A 19 item questionnaire was designed by a registered dietitian and a Health educator, and developed on the basis of responses from a focus group of 32 college students, who were enrolled in a senior-level course, and a field test among 10 randomly chosen students who were in a public location on campus. The questionnaire assessed energy drink consumption per month, type of energy drink usually consumed, side effects associated with energy drink use (jolt and crash episodes, headaches, heart palpitations), and six situations for energy drink use. Each of the six situations had two follow up questions that assessed the average number of energy drinks consumed, as well as average frequency, for that situation. A jolt and crash episode was defined in reference to a feeling of increased alertness and energy (the jolt) followed by a sudden drop in energy (the crash) that occurs in response to using energy drinks. Even though the article by Rogan under review is an essay, based on a paper presented at the 8th Interdisciplinary Conference on Research in Consumption, Paris, July 26-28, 2001, taking into account the content strength and volume it can be compared with any research article. Rogan has not specified method of research in the article. However, it qualitatively analyzes available literature on the subject, and an effort has been made to fill the gap identified in earlier studies by Rogan and others. Accuracy and execution of abstract and introduction: The abstract provided by Malinauskas and team gives a gist of the topic under consideration with background, methods used, results, and conclusions. The abstract conforms to peer- reviewed article standards, even though it looks extensive. Abstract of Rogan carries absolute facts in an orderly manner, and has succeeded in unraveling the information that is being provided in the text. Introduction given by Malinauskas et al (2007) is replete with valuable information supported by literature reviews relevant to the article. Readers are navigated through series of facts about energy drink brands, slogans of major plays in energy drink market, type and ingredients, effects, and adverse health consequences of acute caffeine consumption from energy drinks. Introduction of the subject has been successfully accomplished in the article titled “A survey of energy drink consumption patterns among college students” by Malinauskas and colleagues. The narrative style of Rogan hold readers’ attention and its introduction is catchy. The introduction also carries relevant literature reviews that substantiate the research purpose. Key words of the abstract have also been explained in the introduction. Aptness of research method: Questionnaire surveys are more useful in analyzing behavior patterns and the choice made by Malinauskas and team is appropriate to the situation. Descriptive statistics included in the analysis are means, standard deviations, 95% confidence intervals, and frequency distributions. They admit that the study has limitations in the area of demographic information, sex-wise percentage representation, reporting of energy drink consumption frequency pattern, and consideration of situations. These inherent problems might have resulted in overestimation for each of the situation event. However, random sampling throughout the weekdays, at different hours, and campus coverage are advantages of the study design. It is perceived that the survey will elicit novel information regarding energy drink consumption habits among college students. In the case of Rogan’s article, it is impossible to comment on research method as the article does not specify any methodical approach. Analysis of results, discussion, and IRB consideration: Results from the study have been analyzed comprehensively and statistical interpretations given to each category of the question by Malinauskas and team. Data have been tabulated in different tables according to energy drink consumption patterns, situations warranting more energy drink consumption, relationship between the six identified situations, and weekly jolt and crash episodes and side effects. Effective discussions with relevance of the study, complementing evidence, and supporting inputs have been provided in the article. The article by Malinauskas and team comply with institutional review board parameters. It is stated that in compliance with the university’s Institutional Review Board for Research with Human Subjects students were informed of the study protocol and those willing to participate anonymously completed the self administered questionnaire. The project was carried out in compliance with the Helsinki Declaration, and the authors declared that they have no competing interests. So far as the article by Rogan is concerned it does not involve any human subjects and the materials used for preparing the article are generally literature and documentary evidence; no ethical considerations are involved, rather than copy right permission from the authors, if any. Appropriateness of reference and citation: Main purpose of citations is to provide clues for interested readers to access the sources used in the article, and “to promote ethical responsibility and academic consistency in a discipline’s writing community”, as well as to avoid risk of plagiarism. Since social science papers are built on information other people have researched and compiled, it is important to give credit to it and acknowledge an individual’s ideas or theories. Malinauskas and colleagues used numeric system of citation, in which publications cited or referred to in the text are consecutively numbered. Rogan used Harvard style of referencing as the article contains a reference list and bibliography. Harvard referencing system is one of the most commonly-used styles worldwide, and is used in many different subjects like arts, humanities, and social science literature. In this system a reference list and a full bibliography can be provided, in which references are arranged in alphabetical order, and numerical referencing is used for foot notes/endnotes. Comparison of articles and conclusions: Two articles under review cover entirely different fields of interest, and their styles in presentation are also unlike. By reading these articles readers are exposed to scientific research and social research, in which methods used for the study are dissimilar. While Malinauskas and colleagues used quantitative research method the article of Rogar used qualitative research. The article of Malinauskas et al (2007) is a scientific research paper with social relevance. It analyzed adverse effects of energy health drink on young generation, particularly college students. Whereas, Rogar attempts to present fad of a bygone era, its rise and fall, and some striking similarity with modern short message service using mobile phone, and e-mail that is replacing which is much popular today. Though picture postcard was a multi-million business during a short span of the beginning of 1900s, the article may seem extraneous to present day scientific world. However, considering the influence of picture postcard in the social circles for short communication, exchanging information about tourist spots worth visiting, exposing culture, and an important hobby of a bygone generation the article has historic importance, and will be able to enlighten younger generation about the fate of a popular cult. The article involuntarily exposes the social ties created through exchange of picture postcards, and the memories that could be preserved and treasured through them, which is absent in the case of present day mobile messages. Rogan’s article highlights the “glorious heyday of deltiology” and helps improve our knowledge about ‘an entangled object’ (Rogan, 2005, p.24). Although the article shows many faces of picture postcard, Rogan failed to mention how ‘postcard-mania was just one among many consumers’ society crazes’ and about the transgressive side of postcards. The analysis of these two articles facilitates understanding of different caliber of research methods and an exposure to scientific and social research approaches that have social relevance. Reference Mlinauskas, BM., Aeby, VG., Overton, RF., Carpenter-Aeby, T., & Barber-Heidal, Kimberly. (2007). A survey of energy drink consumption patterns among college students. Nutrition Journal, 6: 35. Rogan, B. (2005). An entangled object: The picture postcard as souvenir and collectible, exchange and ritual communication. Cultural Analysis, 4: 1-27. Assignment II: Analysis of Magazine Report Introduction: Primary use of non-scholarly periodicals, such as magazines and popular journals is to inform, entertain, or persuade. Non-scholarly articles informs popular issues, trends, new research, news; provides up-to-the minute information, background information, as well as act as starting place for further research; and helps to identify key people, places, and events related to a certain topic, which act as keywords for future searching. These articles are often written by reporters, or paid staff, or by freelance writers and approved for publication by an editor, and are usually published daily, weekly, or monthly. Main audiences of such articles are general public and those without specialized knowledge, though scientific researchers sometimes draw inspiration from news items published in non-scholarly articles. Unlike peer reviewed articles, news reports normally do not follow strict structure or scientific methods to validate the content of the article or cross-check with similar articles to authenticate the information. Non-scholarly articles generally concentrate on style and appeal, rather than content worth, and will have more advertisements, as its basic tenet is business promotion instead of promoting scientific enquiry. In this context review of article by Snyder (2007), published in “Wyoming Tribune-Eagle’ shall provide more insight into validity of non-scholarly articles, as well as an idea about the strength of such articles in pursuing scientific research. Brief overview of article: Article by Snyder, titled “Cheyenne ranked as least-fit city for kids in October issue of Men’s Health Magazine,” published in Wyoming Tribune-Eagle is received by Cheyenne residents as a shocking news (2007). In Health & Fitness column under reader’s choice topic of Wyoming Tribune, Snyder gives an awakening call to “Get off the coach and go for a run or hit the gym because we’ve got a lot of work to do, at least according to Men’s Health” (Snyder, 2007). The article is based on Men’s Health Magazine report, a popular fitness magazine that has a circulation of nearly 1.8 million, wherein Cheyenne is ranked as the least-fit city for kids in the country. The rating was part of the magazine’s FitSchools initiative, which seeks to fight childhood obesity by improving physical education. Cheyenne was the only Wyoming town included in the rankings of 100 cities. Cheyenne, capital of Wyoming and largest city in the Laramie County, has cultural diversity, with a blend of old and new West, and its estimated population is 55,314, for 2006 (Wyoming population estimates, 2009). According to US Census Bureau (2008) the population estimates for Wyoming, for 2006, is 515,004; of which 6.5% persons are under 5 years old and 23.6% persons are under 18 years old. (Wyoming, 2009). The county population is concentrated in or near Cheyenne, which has parks, golf courses, swimming pools, tennis courts, and skate parks, besides over 20 miles of public greenway (cited from City of Cheyenne, 2007).‘Men’s Health’ magazine in its report for 2007 ranked Seattle as the most fit city and Cheyenne the least fit. Research Method: The ‘Men’s Health’ magazine states that they used five factors to determine the best environment to raise physically fit children, of which three relied on the lifestyle habits of adults, including how frequently they exercise and eat fast food, and the percentage that are considered overweight, and the other two factors were the number of fast-food restaurants per capita and sports camps offered per child. The magazine declares that ranking is based on data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and state physical education requirements, as reported by the American Heart Association (AHA) and the National Association for Sports and Physical Education (NASPE). In addition data from Economic Census and the results of the President’s Physical Fitness Challenge also were factors for consideration. Colletti, researcher for ‘Men’s Health,’ states that it was not an easy task to grade fitness of a city, simply by looking at the size of children, as volumes of statistics had to be scanned for preparing the rank file. Data were collected at state level, relying on CDC statistics and information from AHA, NASPE. The information was cross-checked to ascertain whether a city’s school children are fit by federal standards. By adding data on the number of sports camps and fast-food restaurants, as well as the amount of fast food actually being consumed, ‘Men’s Health’ had a “clear (if scary) picture of where the children aren’t growing up but out” (Colletti, 2007). Public response to the article: The ranking received multiple responses from the residents of Cheyenne. Garry Maas, director of health and safety at the Wyoming Department of Education support the findings, relying on parental response to physical fitness. Whereas, Jeff Grant, program director at the Cheyenne Family YMCA is skeptical about the news and dismisses the merit of the ranking, because in his view there is no shortage of opportunities for children to be physically active, in the view of Tracie Peterson, an exercise physiologist at Cheyenne Regional Medical Centre the ranking is ‘scary’. The reason for ranking Cheyenne as the least fit city is less exercise and more fast-food consumption by children, and Snyder asserts that kids are not to be blamed for this status. How to tackle obesity: It is a well known fact that obesity prevalence, particularly among children and adolescents, has reached epidemic proportion in recent decades. According to WHO experts “Obesity is a global problem which varies according to local context” and “policies to prevent obesity and promote health will require the participation of many sectors.” (International approaches: World health organization, 2006). Experts in the filed of food and nutrition, and public health, based on research findings, align with the common assumption that modern lifestyle changes with readily available energy-dense foods and technological advances that reduce physical activity have contributed to an energy imbalance. Studies reveal that during the past 20 years there has been a dramatic increase in obesity in the United States, and “rates of overweight and obesity remain high with 31.9% of children and adolescents aged 2 through 19 years at or above the 85th percentile of the 2000 BMI-for-age growth charts.” (Overweight trends among children and adolescents, 2008). Regular physical activity is essential for reducing body fat, promoting bone and muscle strength. It is observed that children and adolescents who are regularly active have less chances of developing chronic diseases, such as heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, or osteoporosis, and may reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression. National Association for Sports and Physical Education (NASPE) in its news release dated November 6, 2007 points out that as per Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) study report majority of schools in the US do provide physical education, but the amount of class minutes per week in most schools does not meet national recommendations. NASPE, an authority in setting standards for the physical education profession, recommends “at least 150 minutes per week of instructional physical education for elementary school students and 225 minutes for middle and high school students.” News wire article: No Time to Lose in Physical Education Class. (No time to lose in physical education class, 2009). ‘The 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans’ issued by the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) prescribe that “children and adolescents should do 60 minutes (1 hour) or more physical activity daily.” That should include aerobics, muscle-strengthening, and bone-strengthening (New physical activity guidelines for all Americans, including youth, 2008). The guidelines suggest that youth can achieve substantial benefits by doing moderate and vigorous-intensity physical activity and the total amount of physical activity is more important for achieving health benefits than is any one component (frequency, intensity, or duration) or specific mix activities (aerobic, muscle-strengthening, bone strengthening). It is essential that children should be actively involved in physical activities and educated to develop healthy habits and life style changes to remain physically fit. At the same time it is crucial to analyze validity of ‘Men’s Health’s’ findings reported by Snyder that Cheyenne as the least fit city, based on other relevant health index for the US in general and Cheyenne in particular. Critical analysis of the magazine article: Youth Risk Behavior Survey, 2007 reports that less than 10 percentages of high school students of Wyoming were obese and Wyoming is one of the three states having least obesity ranking. (Health topics: Childhood obesity, 2007). Men’s Fitness in its 11th annual survey of fittest/fattest cities, 2009 project Salt Lake City as the ‘Fittest city’ in America and the ‘Fattest city as Miami’, after analyzing ‘reams of data’ on the 50 most populated areas. Whereas, United Health Foundation in its ‘America’s Health Ranking’ 2008 placed Vermont as the healthiest state, and Louisiana as the least healthy state. In addition, CDC’s Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), the largest telephone health survey in the world, indicate Burlington ( Vermont’s largest city ) as the fittest and Huntington as the unhealthiest metropolitan area. (Men’s fitness says Salt Lake City is fittest city, Miami fattest, 2009). These latest statistics reveal that there is least consistency in the reporting of Men’s Health, which may be due to fallacy in study approach. It is worth noting that to ensure the health and well-being of all Cheyenne residents, recreational, leisure, and cultural opportunity are provided for all citizens; Cheyenne is planning to build a state-of-the-art community health and recreation facility which accentuates its initiative in promoting healthy habits. In addition, the statistics that the Cheyenne Soccer Association (CSA), which promotes youth soccer in Cheyenne and nearby areas, has about 1500 players (CSA, 2007) indicates involvement of Cheyenne’s youth in sporting activities, and it establishes that there is no dearth in physical activity among children of Cheyenne. Similarly using number of fast food outlets as a measure to decide obesity prevalence is not a valid criteria, because the fast food outlets may be catering to visitors and tourists rather than the inhabitants of the city. Since Cheyenne is located at the intersection of two interstate highways and having a culturally diverse population, the influx of fast food centers may be attributed to business opportunity from tourism. Similarly, counting on parks and recreation facilities does not substantiate the conclusions, since it may not be possible to use these facilities during major portion of a year due to inclement weather. Another factor worth considering is business interests of Men’s Health magazine. Men’s Health Fit Schools is a tax-exempt organization, described in section 501(C) (3) of the Internal Revenue Code, working to fight child obesity by improving physical education partnering with ‘fit-minded’ companies and leading youth fitness experts, such as Adopt-a-Classroom, Expresso Fitness, Perform Better!, Reebok (RbK), and Wellbridge. The foundation “aims to reform physical education, end childhood obesity, and save a generation,” since “more than 9 million children in the United States are overweight” and “less than one in 10 schools meets federal exercise requirements.” (Josh, 2007). Even though the magazine may be reporting factual information and the organization thrives to promote physical education under good intentions, its report that a place is unfit to live will prompt the administration to act in haste, which may indirectly promote the organization’s business interests. However, the article initiated scientific curiosity to locate the facts, and will help the residents involve more in physical activity and lifestyle changes. It derives that a non-scholarly article also has the potential to attract scientific curiosity and the ability to influence social change. References Health topics: Childhood obesity. (2007). National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Retrieved February 20, 2009, from http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/obesity/obesity-youth-txt.htm International approaches: World health organization. (2006). European Heart Network. Retrieved February 20, 2009, from http://www.ehnheart.org/files/policy%20options%20final-150305A.pdf Josh, Castleman. (2007). Fighting obesity one school at a time. Men’s Health Fit Schools. Retrieved February 20, 2009, from http://www.menshealth.com/fitschools/index.html New physical activity guidelines for all Americans, including youth. (2008). National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Retrieved February 20, 2009, from http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/physicalactivity/guidelines.htm Men’s fitness says Salt Lake City is fittest city, Miami fattest. (2009). ACSM: American Fitness Index. Retrieved February 20, 2009, from http://www.americanfitnessindex.org/news/ No time to lose in physical education class. (2009). High Beam Research. Retrieved February 20, 2009, from http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-1387869251.html Overweight trends among children and adolescents. (2008). Centers fro Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved February 20, 2009, from http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/trend/index.htm Research articles and refereed (peer reviewed) journals. (2007). University Library: University of Illinois at Urbana Champion. Retrieved February 20, 2009, from http://uiuc.libguides.com/content.php?pid=3442&sid=20935 Snyder, C. (2007). Cheyenne ranked as least-fit city for kids in October issue of Men’s health magazine. Wyoming Tribune-Eagle, p.A10. Wyoming. (2009). US Census Bureau: State and Country Quick Facts. Retrieved February 20, 2009, from http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/56000.html Wyoming population estimates. (2009). WY Home Town Locater. Retrieved February 20, 2009, from http://wyoming.hometownlocator.com/census/estimates/cities.cfm Read More