The Influence of Apartheid on the Political and Social Framework of South Africa - Literature review Example

Case Study - Apartheid Education: the South African Example Introduction The development of Apartheid across South Africa has been the result of the expansion of cultural and financial differentiations among people in accordance with their race. On the other hand, it has been proved that Apartheid has been a system with no standard characteristics and limits. Education has been used by the supporters of Apartheid to help towards the expansion of the specific system; however, it is through education that the limitation of this system – referring especially to the development of the Apartheid in the long term - has been also attempted. In the study of Gibson (2003) it is revealed that ‘support for democracy in South Africa is not widespread; it varies considerably across the major racial/ethnic groups in the country; education contributes to the development of democratic values among whites but not among Africans, "Coloureds," and those of Asian origin’ (Gibson, 2003, 772). Apartheid affected all aspects of daily life of black people in South Africa. In the everyday activities of people in the specific area, Apartheid had the form of the exclusion of black people from specific initiatives/ rights. Lemon et al. (2005) refer to the review of the terms of housing markets in South Africa after the collapse of Apartheid. The elimination of Apartheid – an effort that has not been completed yet – has been achieved through the active support of unions. The specific issue is highlighted in the study of Barchiesi (2007) who emphasized ‘the decisive role of organized labor and black trade union organizations in the collapse of the apartheid regime’ (Barchiesi, 2007, 39). Apartheid had many different aspects; current paper focuses on the effects of Apartheid on the education system of South Africa; the methods of education used during the period of the system’s domination would be examined and evaluated in order to understand the effects of Apartheid on South Africa’s education – referring to all levels of educational activities. 2. Apartheid and Education in South Africa – characteristics, effects on local society Apartheid in general Apartheid has been a system with many different aspects and effects; the appearance and the development of this system has been the result of a long term conflict regarding the rights of people of different racial background; Apartheid is closely related with the American history. Towards this direction it is noted that in the period that followed the Civil War (USA) ‘the principle of racial segregation subsequently permeated other social institutions, most notably the political, educational, and residential institutions, to form the American apartheid system by 1918’ (Cable et al., 2003, 183). Apartheid served specific interests; the racial characteristics of people was just a reason for the development of inequalities among population; in fact, the need for the promotion of the rights of a specific class, the rich people, was the most important reason for the appearance and the development of Apartheid. In the study of Vale (2008) it is noted that ‘under the apartheid system three separate traditions — English-speaking, Afrikaner and Homeland —co-existed, albeit uneasily, in separate institutional forms’ (Vale, 2008, 117). In other words, Apartheid supporters made the necessary adjustments to the system’s schemes so that it could be easily adopted by the local communities. The development of Apartheid was supported by the media and the press of that period – a tool that helped towards the quick expansion of the specific system around the world - especially across Africa. In this context, it is noted that ‘under apartheid, the mainstream Afrikaans media served as vehicles for the ideology of apartheid; since democratization, they have attempted to rid themselves of this ideological baggage, and instead embraced a free-market ideology in which race has ostensibly disappeared’ (Wasserman, 2009, 61). Apartheid had to be developed quickly as the interests of rich people – belonging at that period mainly in the white race – had to be protected and supported. The role of black people in the context of Apartheid has been analyzed in the literature. Regarding this issue, it is noted that ‘the apartheid era systematized ethnic cleansing, but cleansing was limited by whites dependence on cheap black labor; thus racialized capitalist growth favored white social mobility and black proletarianization’ (Emery, 2008, 409). Through the above system, it is made clear that Apartheid has been a system served not the need for the creation of a superior social class but the need for supporting the financial needs of the specific class; the fact that most of the rich people were white led to the development of the conflict between white and black people – a conflict that has its roots in the appearance and the development of capitalism worldwide – not in the beliefs of people regarding the mental or physical superiority of people in accordance with their race (Mabokela, et al., 2001, 17). The development of Apartheid across South Africa has been supported by the country’s political forces – even if related with the interests of specific parts of the population – within the context explained above. In this context, the limitation of the effects of Apartheid on the country’s social, political and educational framework had to be combined with relevant restructuring of existing governmental policies – in other words, this effort had to be supported by the state – the major initiator and supporter of Apartheid in South Africa. The fact that the limitation of the effects of Apartheid on the country’s educational system did not have – at least up to now – the effectiveness expected can lead to the assumption that the initiatives taken by the state towards this direction were not as effective as required. Apartheid in education As noted above, the promotion of Apartheid would require the support of specific social and political forces and policies. Education has been considered to be a valuable tool for the development of Apartheid; by influencing the beliefs of people – both of white and black ones – the supporters of Apartheid would be able to achieve the rapid expansion of the specific system; the most important benefit of using education for the support of Apartheid should be the fact that the particular system would be more difficult to be eliminated – its principles would have become parts of the common beliefs on racial characteristics – the superiority of the white class would have become – almost – an issue of common sense. There were no particular methods of education introduced during Apartheid; rather existing methods of education were used. The only difference was the curriculum delivered; this was appropriately processed in order for the ideas included to be supportive towards the principles and the theoretical context of Apartheid. Under these terms, the major challenges faced by educators – but also politicians – the post – Apartheid Africa has been to develop an effective scheme of elimination of the ideas promoted during Apartheid; at the same time the promotion of new ideas and beliefs – in accordance with the principles of racial equality and fairness- would be achieved through the programs developed in educational institutes across Africa (Habib, 2003, 49). In South Africa – the region under analysis – many educational schemes have been proposed in order to eliminate the influence of Apartheid on the specific sector. An indicative example is the Outcomes-Based Education scheme which has been ‘a way to transform education and address the imbalances of the past’ (Joseph, 2002, 66). Indeed, the use of the specific scheme was proved to be particularly valuable; a relevant research ‘revealed both positive and negative attitudes as well as the strong need for teachers professional development if OBE is to succeed’ (Joseph, 2002, 66). Other educational schemes used in educational institutes across South Africa during the post – Apartheid era – had led to the differentiation of the country’s educational culture; the latter had been strongly influenced by Apartheid and radical measures were required for its reform. In this context, ‘the potential value of Mediated Learning Experience (MLE)-based intervention programmes in contributing to the transformation of the South African education system from its previous apartheid-based methods and goals of compliance’ (Skuy, 2002, 85) is highlighted in the literature. Among the schemes used by the political authorities in South Africa for the reform of the country’s educational system – in order for the influences of Apartheid on this sector to be eliminated – has been the process of internationalisation. The specific process is analyzed in the study of McLellan (2008) where it is explained that ‘internationalisation is a policy issue that has failed to gain significant recognition in higher education policy circles in South Africa’ (McLellan, 2008, 131). The effectiveness of other similar schemes is not analyzed. It can be assumed that the above scheme did not have the required support by the state – a fact that led to the gradual limitation of its potentials and its prospects as a decisive scheme for the reform of South Africa’s educational system. The development of inequalities in education under the influence of Apartheid cannot be doubted. In accordance with Clark et al. (2006) in South Africa different types of schools can be identified ‘from schools which have endured years of extended political contestation to those whom apartheid privileged and thus essentially left untouched’ (Clark et al., 2006, 4). Political forces in South Africa had a major role in the expansion of Apartheid across the country’s educational institutes. Regarding this issue it is noted that ‘the educational transformation in post Apartheid South Africa should be viewed against the background of the political changes which took place in the specific country’ (Soudien et al., 1999, 493). When having to deal with the educational schemes developed in South Africa during the post – Apartheid era, educators should pay attention at the following issues: ‘outcomes-based education as it appears in the Revised National Curriculum Statement of 2002, cultural capital, and national consciousness’ (Singh, 2005, 323). However, the above list is not limited as of its elements. Different priorities can be set by educators in the educational system of South Africa during the post – Apartheid era. The social and cultural characteristics of the region, the background and the capabilities of learners as well as the resources available for the delivery of the curriculum would take into consideration by educators in South Africa. The development of effective education schemes in South Africa during the post – Apartheid era had to be combined with other measures – otherwise, no major benefits were to be expected by the educational reform in the above region (Kallaway, 2002, 39). Towards this direction, it is noted that ‘while the state cannot ignore language, culture and identity, its central problem is how to reconcile `difference with common citizenship’ (Moodley et al., 2000, 51). From a similar point of view, Mgobozi (2004) noted that ‘an improvement in labour market processes and radical improvement of black South Africa’s educational alternatives to apartheid education have to be addressed by policy-makers yet again’(Mgobozi, 2004, 775). The above researcher highlights the need for elimination of the educational schemes used in Bantu education (related with the promotion of Apartheid) but also of the simultaneous use of specific political and social schemes. 3. Conclusion It is made clear through the issues presented above that the appearance and the development of the Apartheid system in South Africa has been the result of the changes occurred in the style of life around the world – especially in the developed countries; the specific style of life had been developed under the influence of capitalism, a system of values and interests that lead to specific priorities and policies; the latter are related with the interests of a specific category of people, the capitalists. The specific issue is highlighted in the study of Harris et al. (2002) where it is noted that ‘many of the challenges faced by post-apartheid South Africa are connected to the international economic and political relations that have shaped the development of the peripheral economies in the contemporary global economic system’ (Harris et al., 2002, 422). The above described system is not related with a specific country; however, it was more developed in the industrialized countries of the specific era. The efforts made for the limitation of the effects of Apartheid on the daily life of people in South Africa have been extensive. These efforts have been also expanded in many parts of the country’s political and financial context – Seidman (2003) refers to the update of corporate ethics in South Africa in order to serve more appropriately the country’s needs since the elimination of Apartheid (Mangan, 1988, 15). The influence of Apartheid on the political and social framework of South Africa has been strong. It is for this reason, that many years and many different schemes and policies have been required for the limitation of the effects of this system on the country’s political and social context. Even after the elimination of Apartheid, its effects are still visible. For this reason, it is noted that ‘despite the massive changes toward a democratic and open society, black South Africans have not won social and economic justice; the poor are still black and the rich predominantly white’ (Gibson, 2001, 65). In education, the efforts for the elimination of the principles and the ideas of Apartheid have been continuous – in the context already explained above (Crais, 1992, 64); however, the effectiveness of the relevant schemes would be doubted especially if taking into consideration current social structure and principles in South Africa; in the specific region – like in other regions worldwide – the superiority of the white race is still promoted serving the interests of a small part of the population – the power of which is difficult to be limited. References Barchiesi, F. (2007) Wage Labor and Social Citizenship in the Making of Post-Apartheid South Africa. Journal of Asian and African Studies, Vol. 42, No. 1, 39-72 Cable, S., Mix, T. 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