The Effects of Overpopulation and Gender Politics on Development - Essay Example

The Effects of Overpopulation and Gender Politics on Development The concept of overpopulation has been a constant feature of debate in the social sciences. Its relation to development has been much debated in the disciplines of politics, economics, sociology, and others. The main focus of has been consequences of overpopulation and implications for overall economic and social progress. The first systematic explorations the issue were conducted in Britain during the 19th century, presenting a dystopian vision of a world endangered by overpopulation. Since that time, the idea of population growth has fascinated social theorists. The purpose of this paper is to explore the effects of population growth on development, and to show that overpopulation is closely linked to gender politics. Thomas Malthus, a British demographer and political economist, developed a theory of overpopulation warning humanity of the dangers of swelling numbers. In his work, An Essay on the Principle of Population (1999), Malthus argued about the negative effects of population growth. He claimed that the multiplication of humanity over time would lead to disease and famine by making natural resources scarcer, and provisions and remedies more costly. Malthus argued that because of the relative growth of different classes within society (primarily English society) and an increase in poverty, the moral order of society would be tested. Malthus used two overlapping axioms to explain his ideas. He argued that it was easier for populations to grow than for natural resources to support this growth; population, for Malthus, increased in a geometric progression, while resources increased in an arithmetic progression. However, he maintained, there is a strong tendency in society towards population growth. This tendency upsets the balance between the number of people and the amount of food available to feed them. This situation worsens poverty and increased the worries of the poor. As a result development is hindered. The Malthusian model explains, just by simple supply and demand logic, that when population increases, the labor market becomes more competitive. This drives wages down. As the proportion of food per person decreases, the price of food also increases. Therefore, overpopulation hurts both poverty alleviation and overall development of society. There were two solutions to this problem according to Malthus: positive checks and preventive checks. Positive checks were natural and historical speed breakers to population growth and came in the form of war, global pandemics, and famines. These checks had balanced the central human tendency to overpopulate, thus limiting the problem of resource scarcity. Preventive checks were to be applied by people to correct the tendency to overpopulate. Malthus was of the opinion that marriage should be delayed till one was financially able to support a family. Though he was an advocate of birth control, he instead preferred self-restraint as a means of preventing population expansion. The other preventive checks that Malthus recommended were abortion, prostitution, and celibacy. He attached the highest importance to moral control and sexual abstinence. He felt that welfare laws would be harmful as they would remove incentives for the poor to improve their situation. Malthus thus strongly disapproved of the same. He claimed there should be a gradual reduction of the number of people that qualify for social welfare. Only those in situations of extreme distress may be rescued through private charity. Of course, Malthus’ recommendations are based on his logic of the ill effects of overpopulation. However, it is unclear how these proposals would aid developmental progress. It is difficult to assume that the poor are comfortable in their position of poverty and the few services they receive from welfare measures keeps them from seeking a better life. Without social welfare, it would be hard for large sections of the poor to provide healthcare for their parents and education to their children. Though Malthus claimed that there was a big role for charity (particularly as it smoothened the path to virtue), such generosity is rare in real life. Some criticized Malthus of ignoring the human capacity to innovate and invent. It is pointed out that by applying new methods of agriculture and production there could be increase in food supply. In fact, recorded history since Malthus’ time bears proof to this fact. However, Malthus remained committed to his belief of the laws he had predicted, and remained doubtful about progress and development in human societies. Till the 19th century, short-term improvements in living standards were offset by population growth, while a long-term decline in standards of living had resulted in a fall in overall population (the operation of the positive check). However, after the industrial revolution, these relationships changed considerably. There was a large decrease in fertility rates in industrial countries along with record growth in agricultural and industrial production. Therefore, living standards improved without any corresponding rise in population levels. This invalidated the Malthusian predictions. Malthus’ ideas, however, persisted over time and influenced new generations of thinkers who applied his logic to the industrial world, where they believe Malthusian examples were present. For instance, population growth as the cause of poverty, the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’, and welfare as the cause of single parenthood in the United States are all neo-Malthusian ideas that focus on one or another aspect of his thesis. The core arguments of the Neo-Malthusians focus on the idea that global growth of population shall lead to a worldwide resource scarcity. The will create a gap between demand for food and its availability. Neo-Malthusians argue that the world is facing more and more difficulties caused by overpopulation and its related problems. Since overpopulation leads to a scarcity of resources, it becomes more difficult to sustain the global population. The drain on food, fresh water, and energy resources raises resource competition between societies and also among its members. This challenges overall peace and security and acts as a detriment to development. The biggest fear they predict is a natural or political disaster as a positive check on the population. This can only be prevented by checking rapid population growth. The method most Neo-Malthusians suggest is birth control. This reflects one of the most important development initiatives of the present international community. In addition, neo-Malthusians argue that population growth leads to poverty. They offer a simplistic explanation for this hypothesis. They claim that the poor have too many children leading to a reinforcement of their poverty. In effect, when families are poor and have a number of children, resource per capita falls. Thus, when resources are insufficient, each member has less to live off. The solution they advise is similarly simple. The poor should have fewer children in order to distribute resources better within the family and check poverty. Thus, it can be seen that neo-Malthusians stress on the economic effects of overpopulation, believing it to be one of the primary causes of widespread poverty. An opposing socio-economic viewpoint is that poverty gives rise to overpopulation. Due to the economic position of poor families, people often find it rational to have many children in order to enjoy certain benefits. It is important to notice the general flow of wealth within families in a given society. If wealth flows from adults to children, people tend to have fewer children. But if wealth flows from children to adults, then it is rational to choose to have more children. Therefore, when there is a large market for child labor, poorer families have an incentive to have a greater number of children i.e. overpopulate. Where such income opportunities are absent, and the upbringing of children is relatively costly – education, healthcare, et al. – poorer families choose to have less children. This socio-economic perspective argues that it is possible to eradicate overpopulation by finding (and resolving) the root causes of poverty within society. Certain cultural and Gender issues also are pointed out to have contributions in causing overpopulation. Many societies across the world continue to be male-dominated. Naturally these are characterized by a lack of education and opportunities for women. The traditional and socially accepted role for women in such societies is one of looking after the family. There is no mentionable participation for females in public life. Even in freer societies, there continues to be a lack of general awareness about the benefits of birth control, whether through contraception, abstaining, or abortion. These issues combine to pose as barriers to population control and warrant an uplift of the social and political conditions of women, wherever their rights still remain suppressed. The lack of voluntary choice and political freedom for women goes a long way in increasing and sustaining overpopulation. Given a choice, poorer families tend to educate the boy-child more often than the girl-child. Yet, the historical evidence shows that providing education and job opportunities to women leads to a reduction in birth rates. Indeed, there is a strong correlation between economic growth and gender equality. Therefore, not only does gender equality lead to population control, it also leads to greater economic development. Greater economic opportunity, political participation and empowerment, education for women leads to aware societies that can effectively generate a preventive check on overpopulation. Further, certain econo-cultural and political factors also result in overpopulation. In “war societies” – many such in present day Africa – that are characterized by a near permanent state of conflict, children must assume the role of providing for the economic security of the family. This remains a clear case where wealth flows from the child to the adult, and it becomes feasible to have more children. In addition, such children invariably remain uneducated, thus negatively affecting the development of these societies. Also, some societies may use overpopulation as a political tool. For example groups demanding secession or certain special reservations could use swelling populations to their advantage. Palestine is one such example, where it is in the interest of its leaders to support overpopulation. There are several policy options that can be adopted to control population growth. Incentives for birth control are a popular measure, and are used in both China and India, the two most populous nations in the world. In the former, the ‘one child per family’ policy ensures the continuation of several government services, including maternity leaves, post-birth care, and health insurance. Families risk losing such benefits if they have more than one child. In the latter, cash incentives are offered to men who choose have vasectomies. It is interesting to note, however, that the population control has worked better in China than in India. This indicates that it may be easier for closed societies to implement policies that deal with the expression of personal choice. Overall, a more strong policy initiative is to increase access to education for women, and greater higher education and jobs for them to check excessive population growth. However, it should not be assumed that population growth does necessarily lead to poverty, hunger, epidemic, and war. As mentioned above, China and India are the two countries with the highest populations in the world; yet, these countries have witnessed phenomenal economic growth in the last two decades. While their populations have continued to grow – though birth rates have reduced slightly over time – so have their economic fortunes, giving rise to visions of an ‘Asian Century’. The explanation behind the economic success of China and India, especially the latter, lies in the potentials and achievements of their populations (Zakaria 2008). Again, if we go by the predictions of the United Nations, the world’s population shall remain around the 9 billion mark till 2050 (1999). However, this rise in population is unlikely to create a neo-Malthusian food crisis: modern-day famines are “…closely associated with conditions of warfare and broadly analogous forms of social disruption. Some of the worst—such as that in China during the Great Leap Forward, or that in North Korea more recently—have happened where, largely for political reasons, a country has been closed to the wider world.” (Dyson 2001: 452) Therefore, this discussion on the conditions and causes of overpopulation points to a variety of factors and consequences. Of these most are notably related to poverty and the politics of gender. There are several policy initiatives that can be taken to correct this overpopulating tendency. But, we must remember that an increasing population, by itself, is not a bad thing, as recent analyses have shown. Instead, we must be mindful of the particular historical, economic, geographical, social, and political contexts in which such expansions take place. References Dyson, T. (2001) ‘World Food Trends: A Neo-Malthusian Prospect?’ Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 145, 4: 438-455. Malthus, T. R. (1999) An Essay on the Principle of Population. Oxford: Oxford University Press. United Nations. (1999) Long-Range World Population Projections: Based on the 1998 Revision. New York: United Nations. Zakaria, F. (2008) The Post-American World. New York: W. W. Norton. Read More