Types and Characteristics of Research Methods - Coursework Example

Running Head: Research Methods Research Methods [Institute’s Research Methods INTRODUCTION Research methods are the ways, through which researchers collect data to build their argument (Schensul, pp. 1-3, 2008). Broadly, research can be under division into two groups or schools, quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative research includes involves major focus on quantities, specifically quantities in numerical forms. Conversely, Qualitative researchers put efforts to evaluate the subjects and objects based on their qualities. “In quantitative research, the emphasis is on collecting data that lead to dependable answers to important questions, reported in sufficient detail that it has meaning to the reader. The proto-typical qualitative study is the ethnography which helps the reader understands the definitions of the situation of those studies” (Aukerman, pp. 1, 2010). The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the various methods and techniques of research. The research methods for both kinds of researches have their limitations and strengths. Quantitative research methods are usually in relation with experimental methodologies involving statistical analysis. On the other hand, qualitative research methodologies facilitate researchers in assessing and analyzing social and cultural phenomena. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS There are many methods available for the collection of qualitative data, each with its own strengths and limitations. Researchers make choices about research methods depending on a number of factors, such as level (e.g., social or community or personal), availability of time, financial resource availability, and cultural or situational suitability (e.g., type of interaction, privacy requirements, and literacy). All kinds of qualitative research together with ethnography are under characterization by their commitment to learn and understand the viewpoints of others. They focus on behaviors and try to derive meanings from their observations (Schensul, pp. 1-3, 2008). In case of qualitative research, the commonly used methods include observations, interviews, focused group discussion and ethnographic survey. Observation Observation is essential to good qualitative research. This method is very useful for the collection of various sorts of behavioral or interactional data. The collection of observational data from open-ended (a search for pattern) to closed and coded (a search for pattern confirmation) ranges. The observations can be in the form of recording the behaviors and patterns as participant observer or more focused systematic and structured forms of observation. Good qualitative researchers usually employ participant observation approaches first to assess whether and how an externally derived observation method can be more appropriate to the setting and study problem. In addition, observations may range from participatory, where the researcher is someone who is regularly present and a member of the study community, to no participatory, where the researcher is an outsider who conducts systematic observations without interacting with anyone. It is, therefore, “a major research strategy which aims to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given area of study through intensive involvement with people in their natural environment” (Marshall, p.482, 1998). Interviews Like observations, qualitative interviews vary from unstructured or semi-spontaneous to highly planned and structured. However, all interviews are open-ended as the respondents can answer in whatever way and to whatever extent they wish and in that case, there is some interaction with the interviewer probing, extending questions, or raising new topics. Qualitative researchers carry out in-depth interviews on individual experience, beliefs, behaviors, and meanings to investigate the variations among individuals and to find patterns of similarity and difference. These interviews can be open-ended initially and can move toward semi-structured interview schedules. In-depth interviews are utilized to look for themes and higher-order patterns (i.e., relationships among themes) and to explain and theorize them. Case Study It is a well-established research strategy where the focus is on a case (which is under very wide interpretation to include the study of an individual person, a group, a setting, an organization, etc.) in its own right, and considering its context. Typically involves multiple methods of data collection. The case study approach for qualitative research offers a wide spectrum of flexible research tools that can help in deriving a holistic understanding of a phenomenon, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are sufficiently blurred (Yin, pp. 1-2, 2003). The most distinct characteristic of case study research is the application of a variety of sources for data collection. This helps in strengthening the credibility and reliability of research (Yin, pp. 1-2, 2003). Different data sources such as interviews, documentation, observations, can be under utilization for the purpose of data collection. This flexibility of multiple options as potential data sources helps to explore a phenomenon from more than one perspective. Moreover, the case study approach, based on the constructivist model, helps in building a close relationship between the researcher and the participant, facilitating the participants to share their accounts of an event or experience. A drawback of employing case study approach is that it generally leads to oversimplification while understanding an event or phenomenon. This generalization may result in partial understanding of the situation as well as subjectivism, questioning the validity of research. Through the research method of case studies, the researcher is able to create an all-encompassing exploration. Ethnographic Studies “Another well-established strategy where the focus is on the description and interpretation of the culture and social structure of a social group” (Robson, pp. 59-61, 2002). Typically involves participant observation over an extended period of time, but other methods (including those generating quantitative data) can also be used (Robson, 2002, p.178). Typically, ethnography tries to answer questions about specific groups of people, or about specific aspects of the life of a particular group. Hence, the selection of an appropriate group, organization or community of interest or concern becomes very important. Immersion of the researcher in that setting is mandatory for a good understanding of the context. These are more time consuming as compared to quantitative surveys. It is an observation that in the case of human population, experimental researchers confront issues as human behavior comes under prediction that is the major confrontation in the experimental researches, as human responses are usually very difficult in terms of their understanding due to their dependency on individual responses. “Rationalizing behavior through experimentation does not account for the process of thought, making outcomes of that process fallible” (Eisenberg, pp. 29-34, 1998). Focus Group Discussions Focus group discussions are “a research strategy which involves intensive discussion and interviewing of small groups of people, on a given ‘focus’ or issue, usually on a number of occasions over a period of time” (Marshall, pp. 233, 1998). These are usually Unstructured, Free flowing Group interview. Start with broad topic and focus in on specific issues. The aim is to learn and understand what people have to say. Literature Review The term literature review encompasses a broad category of assessing and examining the available literatures to produce an articulated literature review (Race, pp. 1-5, 2008). Access to literary sources is the persistent concern for researches and electronic access to global literature is a research skill that researchers need to develop in themselves. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS Survey “A series of self report measures, administered through an interview or a written questionnaire” (Stangor, pp. 96, 1998) is survey. The goal is to produce a snapshot of opinions, attitudes, and behaviors of a group of people at a given time. Often administered as an interview (phone, face to face) (Stangor, pp. 97, 1998). Visser et al (2000, pp. 35-41) defined it as the administration of a questionnaire to a defined population. The important Elements of a survey are Type of data collection (questions) and Interest in generalization (to a defined population). Survey based research is usually quicker to carry out. “Once the questionnaire and Interview schedule is finalized, data collection can proceed quite quickly” (McNeill & Chapman, pp.25, 2005). In addition, the results gathered are more reliable. These advantages accompanied with quantitative research make it very demand of the day. As Cerrito (1999, pp. 9-13) puts, “Statistical literacy is no longer a luxury; it is a necessity.” In quantitative survey, survey experts play a crucial role in its success. In addition, it is the responsibility of survey experts to design suitable sample with the help of unswerving measures while carrying out a pretest. Surveys can be conducted face-to-face, by mail or telephone, or by computer. Questionnaire “A set of fixed format, self report items that are completed by respondents at their own pace. They may produce honest responses to sensitive topics. Moreover, this method is cheaper than face-to-face interviews” (Stangor, pp. 97, 1998). The researcher needs to be very cautious during the question design stage. The best way is to consult textbooks for guidelines. While formulating and designing a questionnaire, some principles should be followed. The most important are the reliability and validity of questions. A valid question is one that measures what we think it does. Does the question actually measure what we are asking? Alternatively, is it affected by other factors? Reliability should also be maintained which can help in ensuring Consistency of response. The questions should be such that a person would answer the same way, if given the question on different occasions. Simple words should be preferred as vague wording may produce unreliable responses Experiments It facilitates researchers in displaying how manipulation in one set of variables can bring alterations in other dependent variables systematically (Polgar & Thomas, pp. 50-55, 2008). The experiments should be appropriately designed and conducted. The definition of population to generalize to should be developed with substantial thought. The selection of sample should be representative of the population. In addition, the Procedures to assign cases to each group (intervention/ control). Different experimental designs are commonly under utilization: these include Posttest design, Pre-test/post-test design and repeated measures. References Aukerman, John H. (2010). “Philosophy of Research.” School of Theology. Retrieved on April 15, 2010: http://www.anderson.edu/sot/guide/ch1.html Cerrito, P. B. (1999). “Teaching statistical literacy.” College Teaching. Volume 47, Issue 1, pp. 9-13. Eisenberg, Nancy. (1998). Handbook of Child Psychology. John & Wiley Sons. Marshall, Gordon. (1998). A Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford University Press, p.233. MCneill, Patrick, Chapman, Steve. (2005). Research methods. Routledge. Polgar, S., Thomas, S. A. (2008). Introduction to research for health sciences. Elsevier. Race, Richard. (2008). "Literature Review." The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods. SAGE Publications. Robson, Colin. (2002). Real World Research. Wiley-Blackwell. Schensul, Jean J. (2008) "Entry." The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods. SAGE Publications. Stangor, C. (1998). Research Methods for the Behavioural Sciences. Houghton Mifflin. Visser, P. S., Krosnick, J. A., & Lavrakis, P. (2000). Survey Research. Springer. Yin, R. (2003). Case study research, design and methods. Sage Publications. Read More