The Impact of Transport on Climate Change - Essay Example

ii. Examine and assess Scotland’s current policies and measures intended to reduce the impact of transport on climate change in terms of their potential impacts; what factors will affect the outcomes and what other measure are potentially available to the Scottish Government and others? Table of Contents 1. Introduction 3 2. Presentation and evaluation of Scotland’s current policies and measures intended to reduce the impact of transport on climate change 5 4. Factors that could affect the performance of Scotland’s policies and measures aiming to limit the impact of transport on climate change 8 5. Measures available to the Scottish government and others regarding the limitation of impact of transport on climate change 11 6. Recommendations 14 7. Conclusion 15 References 18 Appendix 20 1. Introduction The development of technology worldwide has led to the improvement of the conditions of living worldwide – even if not equally across the international community. However, the advances of technology have been also related with the increase of the risks for the environment. On the other hand, the impact of industries on the environment has been differentiated in accordance with a series of factors – the level of involvement of these industrial activities in everyday life indicates the potential impact of these activities on the environment. Countries around the world have adopted different policies aiming to reduce the impact of their industrial activities on the environment. The achievement of this target is often difficult being depended on the ability of governments to identify the actual causes of the problem and to introduce the measures that are most appropriate in the specific case. Current paper focuses on the presentation and the evaluation of the policies and measures introduced by the Scottish government towards the reduction of the impact of transport on climate change. Emphasis is given on the factors that affect the performance of these measures. Furthermore, suggestions are made in regard to the additional policies available to the Scottish government and others aiming to control the impact of transport on climate change. Transport has been an industrial sector closely related with the environment. In fact, it has been proved that the various means of transport affect the environment but this impact can be effectively controlled if appropriate policies are developed in advance. At this point, the level at which environment affects the governmental policies of a particular country is of crucial importance; the examination of the response of governments to the climate change – as the relevant policies are presented below – has led to the assumption that not all countries align their strategic decisions with the needs of the environment; in Scotland, the country’s government have paid significant attention on the potential effects of transport of climate change; this trend is reflected in the Climate Change Delivery Plan, a regulatory framework aiming to reduce the impact of transport of climate change. The above plan includes the government’s major policies in regard to the achievement of the specific target; this plan also indicates the level at which environment influences governmental decisions in Scotland; however, additional policies of such type would be developed – existing measures have been found to be inadequate for controlling the effects of transport on climate change. A series of potential policies of this type is suggested through this paper; it is concluded that existing measures taken by the Scottish government regarding the limitation of effects of transport on climate change have been aligned with specific environmental needs and with specific human activities; additional criteria would be used when developing these policies aiming to increase their effectiveness in the long term. At the next level, it has been proved that a series of factors are likely to affect the performance of policies introduced by the Scottish government aiming to reduce the impact of transport on climate change; these factors have been identified and are critically evaluated; the limitation of their power on the performance of the policies described above is also critically discussed. The analysis and the evaluation of the performance of policies developed by the Scottish government regarding the control of impact of transport of environment would be used in the development of similar initiatives worldwide. 2. Presentation and evaluation of Scotland’s current policies and measures intended to reduce the impact of transport on climate change The effects of transport on climate change have been highlighted in the literature; in the study of Berrittella et al. (2008) it is made clear that ‘transport is the sector with the fastest growth of greenhouse gases emissions in many countries; accumulation of these emissions may cause uncertain and irreversible adverse climate change impacts’ (Berritttella et al., 2008, p.307); Rajan (2006) also notes that due to the effects of transport on climate change it is necessary that a series of measures are taken by governments worldwide in regard to the limitation of these effects – it is suggested by the above researcher that emphasis should be given on the ‘technology and pricing policies that would aim to change life-styles and land uses in ways that effectively reduce car dependence’ (Rajan, 2006, p.664). In Scotland, the local government has identified the need for transforming and developing its existing transport policies in order to protect the environment; the Climate Change Delivery Plan developed by the Scottish government includes the policies and the measures that this government has considered to be most crucial in order to reduce the impact of transport on the environment. The above plan is available through the government’s website; the specific plan has been supported by the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 which includes the policies employed for the reduction of carbon emissions in Scotland by 2050 – a reduction of 80% of these emissions is expected to be achieved in Scotland in accordance with the above legislation – under the terms that all conditions of the Climate Change Delivery Plan are met (Scottish Government, website, 2010). The Climate Change Delivery Plan includes a series of initiatives developed within specific sectors – aiming to achieve the target presented above, i.e. to reduce the country’s carbon emission by 80% by 2050; in this context, it is noted that specific policies will be introduced in regard to the country’s ‘electricity and heat demand and supply, the transport sector, the rural land use and the waste’ (Scottish Government, website, 2010); specifically in regard to the country’s transport sector a series of initiatives are suggested – taking into consideration the level of transport emissions in the specific country from 1900 up to 2006 (as shown in the Appendix sector, Figure 1) the following policies are suggested – aiming to reduce the impact of transport on climate change: a) support of walking and cycling, b) introduction of advanced vehicle technologies – referring especially to hybrid and electric vehicles, c) control of emissions from aviation, d) support of the ‘eco-driving’ which focuses on the use of less fuels when driving, e) improvement of existing public transport infrastructure, f) improvement of existing planning system – emphasis is given on the ‘road space reallocation’, g) increase of investment on bio-fuels, h) control of emissions from shipping, I) improvement of rail network and g) increase of investment on ‘hydrogen fuel cell technology’ (Scottish Government, Climate Change Delivery Plan, 2010). The Climate Change Delivery Plan has been criticized as of its effectiveness; in a report published by the organization Transform Scotland it is noted that the provisions of the above plan in regard to the limitation of emissions can be characterized as satisfactory – emphasis is paid on the ‘demand management, investment in active travel and Smarter Choices, and cutting speed limits’ (Transform Scotland, 2009); however, it is noted that walking and cycling were not appropriately supported. In accordance with Spielmann et al. (2008) the effects of transport on the environment can be estimated and evaluated using a series of criteria and event; the above researchers noted that the most important framework for evaluating the effects of transport on the environment is ‘the environmental efficiency – including operation, energy supply, vehicle supply and infrastructure supply – for all important transport services of the current passenger transport system as well as for the new transport technology’ (Spielmann et al., 2008, p.1388); this means that a country’s transport system should be evaluated not only in accordance with its current performance but also in regard to its expected performance in the near future – predictions of this type would be available in regard to transport schemes that are analytical – each of their elements is clearly described and justified. On the other hand, the performance of a particular transport scheme may be differentiated under the influence of various mechanisms – an issue highlighted in the study of Hickman et al. (2010); the above researchers studied the performance of Britain’s transport system and came to the conclusion that the overall effectiveness of this system would be difficult to be evaluated because of the continuous changes in governmental priorities and resources available for the development of the specific system; however, it is suggested that the following policy packages would be available to the persons working in the development of the above country’s transport system: ‘low emission vehicles, alternative fuels, pricing regimes, public transport, walking and cycling, strategic and local urban planning, information and communication technologies, smarter choices, ecological driving and slower speeds, long distance travel substitution, freight transport and international air’ (Hickman et al., 2010, p.110); part of the above policies have been already introduced by the Scottish government in regard to the limitation of the impact of transport on climate change; it is expected that these policies would perform well under the terms that the resources required for their development will be available within the time framework set by the planners of the relevant scheme – referring to the Climate Change Delivery Plan. 3. Factors that could affect the performance of Scotland’s policies and measures aiming to limit the impact of transport on climate change In order to identify and understand the factors that are expected to influence the performance of plans aiming to reduce the impact of transport on climate change, it would be necessary to examine the challenges faced by governments and organizations worldwide when similar plans of actions were developed; in accordance with the study of Bart (2010) the effectiveness of the measures developed by the European Union in regard to the limitation of the impact of transport on climate change has been proved to be related with the status of the economy of each member state; even if the measures suggested towards the achievement of the above target have been appropriately structured, their performance has been decreased when the funds available for their realization have not been adequate; on the other hand, the study of Proost et al. (2009) led to the assumption that the effectiveness of the policies developed by the countries across the European Union in regard to the limitation of the effects of transport on the environment has been depended on the taxation imposed on fuels; more specifically, the increased taxation of fuels has been found to be a reason for the limitation of the use of means of transport in countries where this policy has been introduced. At the next level, it seems that the success of plans aiming to reduce the impact of transport on climate change is depended on the infrastructure and the technology available in the country where these plans are applied (Akerman et al., 2006); this means that such plans that have been proved to be effective in the context of a specific country might be inappropriate for another country – with a different infrastructure and resources (funds, technology, expertise) available for the realization of these plans. Towards a similar point of view, the study of Eyring et al. (2009) leads to the assumption that the success of plans of this type is depended on their flexibility and their content; more specifically, in accordance with Eyring et al. (2009) the plans aiming to reduce the impact of transport on climate change should be open to alterations – in case of emergent conditions – and they should cover all potential transport activities; otherwise, their performance would be low – compared to the level of performance set by their designers. On the other hand, both the urban and the rural morphology of a country needs to be taken into consideration when its transport plans are to be developed – an issue also highlighted in the study of Verhaar et al.(2008). Through the issues highlighted above it is made clear that the factors that are most expected to influence the performance of Scottish government’s plans in regard to the limitation of the impact of transport on the climate change are the following ones: a) the status of the Scottish economy; however, the identification of the exact status of a country’s economy is rather a difficult task; in fact, the type, the level and the quality of the resources available for the support of a country’s economy cannot be estimated with accuracy – since the relevant data can be available only to the authorities and the persons involved in the management of a country’s financials; in this way, even if for a specific period the performance of a country’s economy seems to be low it can be improved in the short or the long term under the influence of various internal and external factors – referring especially to the investments by local entrepreneurs or by foreign investors, also the financial support by a foreign country in the context of a specific commercial agreement; b) the level of taxation imposed on fuels; again this factor can be differentiated in accordance with the governmental targets set for a particular period of time – it is possible that for a specific year this tax is high and the subsequent year to be low – under the influence of improved terms of cooperation in the energy sector; c) the country’s infrastructure – referring to the technology available for the development of transport policies but also to the existing facilities that can support various transport projects; at this point it needs to be mentioned that the infrastructure of Scotland can be characterized as quite satisfactory – in regard to the country’s existing facilities but also in regard to the relevant projects that are expected to be completed in the short term – as presented in the Climate Change Delivery Plan described above; d) the country’s urban and rural structure; Scotland is a country with a well developed urban design; on the other hand, the country’s rural environment is well protected and is characterized by variety – in terms of rural characteristics, such as rivers, lakes and mountains; the region’s environmental conditions – strong rainfalls and winds – would be also taken into consideration by the persons working on the design and implementation of transport policies aiming to reduce the impact of transport on climate change; the climate conditions of the region would not be affected by these policies both in the short and the long term. 4. Measures available to the Scottish government and others regarding the limitation of impact of transport on climate change A series of measures is available to the Scottish government in regard to the limitation of the effects of transport on climate change – referring not just to the alteration of the country’s existing transport policies but rather to the introduction of additional plans of this type – always taking into consideration the local infrastructure and urban design but also the technology available for the realization of the relevant plans; at this point the similar policies introduced by governments and organizations worldwide would be extremely helpful to identify those plans that would be most appropriate for reducing the impact of transport on climate change across Scotland; the examination of the practices introduced by the European Union in regard to the limitation of CO2 emissions during the decade 1990-2000 led to the assumption that ‘the correlation between transport CO2 emissions and the increase of artificial land area is much stronger than the correlation between CO2 emissions and GDP or population data’ (Bart, 2010, p.283); the above finding has further led to the assumption that land-use based policies would be preferred when the reduction of CO2 emissions is attempted (Bart, 2010, p.283). From a different point of view, Proost et al. (2009) noted that the limitation of the effects of transport on climate change could be achieved not only by introducing appropriately customized policies but rather by changing existing taxation framework – referring to the taxes imposed on fuels used in transport. The above suggestion was critically examined in relation to the transport sector of 31 countries across Europe; it was revealed that ‘the volume of transport will decrease because current taxes on transport are too low compared to overall external costs’ (Proost et al., 2009, p.3863); however, it is suggested that because the overall cost of changing existing car technologies – replacing them with technologies that are friendly to the environment – no radical changes are expected to be made on the technologies used in the automotive industry at least for the next two decades. Akerman et al. (2006) studied the transport policies available to the Swedish government in regard to the limitation of the effects of transport on climate change; the above study emphasizes on the development of a potential plan of action that would be appropriate for achieving the above target especially in the context of Sweden; it is concluded that such a plan would be based on the following two aims: ‘first, to widen the perspective of sustainable transport futures and, second, to provide a basis for present decisions in areas characterized by a high inertia, e.g. regarding infrastructure and the built-up environment’ (Akerman et al., 2006, p. 1944); it is concluded that the achievement of the above two targets is feasible by using specific policies; more specifically, the ‘the reduction of energy use is achieved by an introduction of energy efficient vehicles and a conscious combination of IT-services and urban planning; the second aim is achieved by increasing functional accessibility while reducing commuting’ (Akerman et al., 2006, p.1944); the above plan would be possibly used by Scottish government when developing the Climate Change Delivery Plan – or when improving the above plan; however, the achievement of the suggested policies – suggested for Sweden – has been depended on the country’s infrastructure and the technology available; in the case of Scotland, the above policies would be appropriately customized in accordance with the existing infrastructure and technology available for the realization of plans of this type. On the other hand, Eyring et al. (2009) note that the effects of transport on climate change can have different forms; by referring to the impact of the emissions of ships on the air pollution, Eyring et al. (2009) mention that ‘the cooling due to altered clouds far outweighs the warming effects from greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) or ozone from shipping, overall causing a negative present-day radiative forcing (RF)’ (Eyring et al., 2009); this means that the governmental plans in regard to the limitation of the impact of transport on climate change need to cover all the industrial activities through which environmental damages are expected to occur; in other words, transport as a sector influencing the environment needs to be considered in all its forms – including not only the transport activities through the land but also through the air and the sea. The role of the local infrastructure and rural design in the development of transport plans aiming to reduce the impact of transport on climate change has been emphasized in the study of Verhaar et al. (2008); in the above study it is noted that a country’s rural infrastructure should be taken into consideration when such plans as to be developed; reference is made on the effects of transport on the level of rivers across a particular country. In the case of Scotland, the above study would lead to the assumption that not only the urban structure but also the country’s rural structure would be taken into consideration when transport policies are to be developed. The study of Verhaar et al. (2008) leads to the same assumptions as the one of Eyring et al. (2009) presented above; in both these studies it is made clear that a country’s morphology, resources and needs have to be taken into consideration by its governors when its transport schemes are to be designed and implemented. 5. Recommendations As suggested above, the Scottish government can choose among different plans of action in regard to the limitation of the effects of transport on climate change; however, these plans require that existing methods used by governmental authorities in regard to the management of governmental projects are changed; indeed, the examination of the measures included in the Climate Change Delivery Plan – framework including the governmental policies aiming to reduce the impact of transport on climate change – has led to the assumption that the structure and the content of these measures are satisfactory – compared to other similar measures developed by governments in the international community; however, it has been proved that when these measures are set in practice – i.e. when they are applied in real terms – they don’t perform in accordance with their standards of performance. The reasons for this failure can be many. The introduction of additional – different – measures – as suggested above – could help to the limitation of this problem; however, in this way the above problem would be partially resolved; the increase of effectiveness of existing transport policies aiming to reduce the impact of transport on climate change would be achieved through the following initiatives: a) close monitoring of all phases of the relevant policies; this task would possibly require the restructuring of existing governmental authorities – especially those involved in the realization of the specific plans, b) regular check of the performance of the Climate Change Delivery Plan – even if the policies included in this plan are satisfactory their performance should be monitored and evaluated; in this way, improvement could be suggested in order to increase the effectiveness of these policies either in the short or the long term – as required, in accordance with the time framework set for the achievement of the Plan’s targets, c) introduction of alternative plans of action; if the realization of certain parts of the Climate Change Delivery Plan is no more feasible – due to the changes in the local and the global environmental conditions or the changes in technology used in transport – then alternative options should be available in order to minimize the risks for environmental damages, d) development of the cooperation with the governments worldwide especially in regard to the limitation of the impact of transport on climate change; the above suggestion should not lead to the assumption that existing policies of Scottish government in regard to the above target are not sufficient or effective; instead, the cooperation with other countries that have developed similar schemes could help to the identification of the potential weaknesses of these plans and the introduction of policies for the increase of their effectiveness – taking into consideration the local urban and rural structure and the resources available for the realization of the relevant plans. In any case, the plans developed by the Scottish government in the context of reducing the impact of transport on climate change should be flexible – being open to changes in order to meet the environmental needs and the infrastructure characteristics of each region. 6. Conclusion The introduction of policies by the Scottish government in regard to the limitation of the impact of transport on climate change has been proved to be a challenging initiative; even if similar measures have been adopted by governments worldwide – as presented above – in the case of Scotland the level of required performance of the above plan has been set extremely high; as a result, the success of the relevant plan has been set in risk. In any case, the measures taken by the Scottish government for the control of the impact of transport on climate change can be characterized as satisfactory; however, the support of these measures with additional policies – as indicated above – would increase the chances for success of the Scottish Climate Change Delivery Plan – as the framework in which the initiatives of the Scottish government in regard to the limitation of the effects of transport on the climate change are included. The examination of the responses of the Scottish government to the transport needs of the country – especially in regard to the environment – proved that environmental needs are taken into consideration when transport policies are to be developed in Scotland; however, these policies are not adequately tested; therefore, their performance cannot be guaranteed – especially in the long term. The implications and the negative points of these policies – as discussed above – prove that the criteria on which transport policies in Scotland are based need to be differentiated; however, the terms under which this transformation will take place have to be further studied; the suggestions made by those who criticize the government’s existing transport plans would be helpful in order to identify the weaknesses of these plans; however, the arguments against the Scottish Climate Change Delivery Plan would be also evaluated using the performance of similar governmental plans in the past – also the performance of similar plans introduced by other governments worldwide – as presented above; the experience on similar schemes in countries around the world can lead to the assumption that the success of the targets set by the Scottish government in regard to the reduction of the impact of transport on climate change is possible but under a specific requirement: that the relevant policies will be periodically reviewed in order to check their alignment with existing social and environmental needs. 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A modified morphodynamic model for investigating the response of rivers to short-term climate change. Geomorphology, Volume 101, Issue 4, pp. 674-682 Online sources Scottish Parliament, [online], available at http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/s3/committees/ticc/index.htm Scottish Government, [online], available at http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Environment/climatechange/scotlands-action Transform Scotland, 17 June 2009, [online], available at http://www.transformscotland.org.uk/climate-change-delivery-plan-unambitious-on-transport.aspx Appendix Figure 1 – Transport emissions in Scotland from 1900 – 2006 (source: The Scottish Government, available at: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2009/06/18103720/6) Read More