The Motivational Methods and Competitive Sports - Case Study Example

Running Head: THEORIES OF MOTIVATION IN COMPETITIVE SPORT Theories of Motivation in Competitive Sport Submitted by: XXXXXXXXX Number: XXXXXXXTutor’s Name: XXXXXXX University of XXXXXXXX Date of Submission: XX – XX – 2010 Introduction: Competitive sports are one which requires to participants to be motivated at all times. Motivating athletes and participants in competitive sports has been a major topic of discussion over the years and has had a number of view points and arguments as well. This paper aims at discussing the various method and motives that are used to motivate the individuals in competitive sports. The paper will detail the views of several authors in the past and researches that have been conducted for motivation in competitive sports. The paper will provide a clear insight into the motivational methods and the competitive sports. Background of Issue: One of the main aims and focus of all people involved in competitive sports is the ability to motivate the athletes. This has been a major focused issue as in a competitive game, the only things that separates the competitors is the motivation that they have. There are a number of different techniques and skills used by both the athletes and the coaches to motivate the individuals and to perform better in the competitions. There have been a number of motivational techniques used by coaches to ensure that the individual performance is optimum and there have also been a number of researches that have been conducted in the field of sports psychology which has been mainly to discover the motivation techniques and secrets for better performance of the athletes. All the theories that have been developed over the years have been focused on several aspects of the individuals like the initiation, influence and also the modification of behavior. Several theories in the earlier times like those by Freud 1923 / 1962, Skinner 1953 / 1971, and also Hull 1943, highlighted a few factors and dealt with the deterministic aspects of the factors alone. For instance, Freud dealt with the instinctual drives, while Hull dealt with physiological drives and Skinner the environmental drives. These theories have proved to be very successful over the years; however there have been a number of criticism and concerns that have also been put forth in the past. The theories deal with the individuals in a method which states them to be passive beings and are those affected highly by the physiology and environment which leads their performance. However with time and with time and over the several researches that have been conducted, there have also been a number of different views and suggestions that have been developed by White, 1959. White proposed that people are more driven by the competent and effectiveness of their skills. White explained that there is a positive result when there is a ‘feeling of efficacy’ (White, 1959, p. 329). White further explains that this acts as a motivation and is intrinsic in nature. Hence the main motivation for competitive sports can be classified as intrinsic and extrinsic. The following sections deals with this in detail and details both the pros and cons of utilizing these methods for the competitive sports motivation. More focus will be on the intrinsic motivation. The main reason is clear by the explanation provided by Whitehead which states, “Children are born intrinsically motivated to be physically active. That motivation —if kept alive by physical success, freedom, and fun—will do more than promote the fitness behaviors that add years to life. It will maintain the physical zest that adds life to the years” (Whitehead, 2010). Literature Review: Over the years there were a number of authors and experts who improvised on the already existing theories and helped build and develop more accurate theories. However it is important to note that there are two major theories of motivation that can be used n the sports field and these include a) intrinsic motivation and b) extrinsic motivation. Individuals can have both extrinsic as well as intrinsic reasons for participating in sports and both of these can prove to be beneficial for the sports person. Extrinsic Motivation: The first method in focus here is the extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is similar to the one as devised by Fredrick Herzberg. According to Huczynski & Buchanan (2001), “Extrinsic rewards are valued outcomes that are control by others, such as recognition, promotion and pay increases”. Similarly in the case of sport psychology as well this is one of the motivational factors for the individuals. The factors that influence the athletes externally include the pressures of money, scholarships at college and school levels, and also the pressure and expectations of family members. These factors tend to act as a method of motivating the individuals and also help in keeping the focus of the individuals in the sports. Along with these factors the urge for fame and accolades also has a major impact and acts as a major factor to motivate the individuals. The main benefit of this method of motivation is that both the rewards as well as the fright of punishment are both psychological and hence this makes the extrinsic motivation very beneficial and helps in the athlete’s performance to a great extent as well. With the external factors impacting the individual to such great extents, it is essential to note that this method leads the person to learn new skills and also improvise on the strategies which also leads to more positive coping styles for the individual as well. However this form of motivation can cause the athletes to be faced with issues that relate to anxiety and also high levels of guilt. When this method of motivation is used, there tends to be more of external influence and need to satisfy others rather than actual participation in the sport. Hence if an individual does not perform well, there tends to be high levels of guilt even in cases where the individual has put in their best in the game. There is a high chance for the athletic to lose interest in the game as there is clearly a lower sense of enjoyment and in the game. Also there is a chance for the individual to have a negative self perception of their own ability and can lead to de – motivation rather than motivation. It is also essential to note that there is a chance for the individual to lose interest in the game if the extrinsic reward is not given to the individual and there can be the sense of the game being a waste of time and lowered interest levels. Intrinsic Motivation: The second type of motivation for sports individuals is the intrinsic motivation. Sports bring about different feelings among different people. For some individuals it is seen that sports can be a positive influence on the person and can lead to joy and excitement and can also lead to thrill and satisfying experience for the individual. On the other hand, this can lead to leaving the person humiliated and can also lead the individual to feel anxious and depressed. Another common reaction is that of people who are influences and willing to participate only if there is a material payoff or unless in the case of coercion. Hence before tying to motivate a person, it is essential to understand the mindset of the individual. Having understood the meaning of extrinsic motivation it is also essential to gain an insight into the meaning of intrinsic motivation. This is purely an internal form of motivation. An athlete that enjoys the game and plays the sport with an aim to achieve satisfaction and personal growth tend to be most affected by the intrinsic motivation. A study conducted by Rudisill 1989, “hypothesized that training children to understand that their performance improvement was personally controllable (i.e., dependent on practice and effort) would improve their subsequent performance—and would also lead them to persist longer at mastery attempts—even in the face of perceived failure” (Whitehead, 2010). It has been brought by a number of authors and experts like Orlick and Mosher (1978), Thompson and Wankel (1980), brought out the point that people tend to perform better when they are play for fun and because they enjoy the game. As explained by Whitehead, “Orlick and Mosher (1978) hypothesized that an extrinsic reward (a trophy) for performance on a stabilometer (balance board) would be perceived by children as controlling—and thus their intrinsic motivation for what is generally an interesting and challenging physical task would be undermined. The hypothesis was supported: When given a free-choice period, the children whose earlier participation was for a trophy showed a decrease in the time they spent voluntarily playing on the stabilometer compared to the children who had no expectation of a reward” (Whitehead, 2010). However there have been views that argue the above mentioned findings as well. A few authors believe that there is a need for at least one or more extrinsic motivation to be motivated to play a sport. Some authors believe that no matter how much a person enjoys a game and no matter how committed one might be to the game, there is always an extrinsic reason for interest in the sport. There are a number of benefits of using this technique as a motivation factors in the case of competitive sports. Individuals who are intrinsically motivated, tend to be less affected by the stress, and any form of guilt or any form of distraction. These people tend to be more focused, confident and also have a high sense of satisfaction in what they do. These individuals also are less likely to be worn out or lose interest in the sport, as they tend to play for the ‘love of the game’. However the drawback of this form of motivation is that it is not as powerful as the extrinsic motivation and here there is a much lower chance for the individual to play till a level of exhaustion based only on their love for the game. There is also the need for some form of external element to impact the individual. Conclusions: In conclusion based on the above discussion and the various views of authors from across the world, it is clear that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have a major impact on the performance of individuals in the competitive sports. It is essential to note that the level of motivation and the success of motivating an individual can be dependent on both the motivation techniques and these together can be very effective and impactful on the performance of the individuals. An excellent example of this as explained by Whitehead, 2010, “Ryan (1980) found some sport specificity in whether athletes perceived sport scholarships as affirmations of their competence (thus supporting intrinsic motivation), or as extrinsically controlling (thus undermining intrinsic motivation). Specifically, athletes in the sport of football (where scholarships were common at that time) were more likely to perceive the scholarships as controlling than were wrestlers or female athletes (for whom scholarships were rare in the late 1970s)” (Whitehead, 2010). It is important to note that there is a chance for the individuals to have both an intrinsic as well as extrinsic motivation to play and even when one of the motivation levels decrease, there is a chance for the other to take over and influence the individual. The extrinsic motivation can have a positive as well as negative impact on the individuals and can also have a major impact on the intrinsic reasons that the person plays. It is important to note that the extrinsic rewards can also lead to the individuals being interested in the game at an intrinsic level and cal also lead to high levels of intrinsic motivation within the individual. However this can also impact the individual negatively and can lead to the individual being motivated more for the extrinsic reward than the intrinsic motivation itself. References Freud, S. (1923/62). The ego and the id. New York: Norton. Hull, C.L. (1943). Principles of behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Orlick, T.D., & Mosher, R. (1978). Extrinsic rewards and participant motivation in a sport-related task. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 9, 27–39. Rudisill, M.E. (1989). Influence of perceived competence and causal dimension orientation on expectations, persistence, and performance during perceived failure. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 60, 166–175. Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan. Skinner, B.F. (1971). Beyond freedom and dignity. New York: Penguin. Thompson, C.E., & Wankel, L.M. (1980). The effects of perceived activity choice upon frequency of exercise behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 10, 436–443. White, R.W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review, 66, 279–333. Whitehead, J. R. (2010). Physical Activity and Intrinsic Motivation. Retrieved September 5, 2010, from http://www.fitness.gov/publications/digests/intrinsic.pdf Read More