Discourse of Race Question - Essay Example

Mixed Heritage Introduction With the Diaspora of people of different race or background, the problem of race is becoming more complex and intricate. Globalization has ushered such complexity via technology, communication, and travel. In a world system wherein things, people, and ideas are becoming much smaller (i.e., the ease of transmitting or transportation), the discourse of race question has become much wider in scope. The fields of human knowledge have, in the process, become interconnected and interrelated. Nonetheless, scholars in different fields of specialized knowledge have attempted to broaden or expand the limits inherent in their chosen sphere of study. Here, the question of mixed heritage (or mixed race) is also the question of race. In determining the categories of mixed race, one has to determine the categories characterized in the term race. It is only in grappling the meaning or signified of the signifier race can one grasp the signification of mixed race. The phrase mixed race, after all, implies the product of two or more races. This paper explores the discourses prominent in the race question. It evaluates, problematizes the discourses in question, and examine the place of mixed race in the social contexts. Theory of Natural Selection and the Notions of Mixed Race Even through the years of research and fact-finding processes, Charles Darwin’s theory is still in question; there could be several gaps between his findings that modern scholars find it hard to fill in. Darwinism, as a school of thought, leads the search for the meaning of race and mixed race to Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection which states that traits become more or less apparent to humans and their offspring as a result of intermarriage, where characteristics which are “not necessarily heterozygous” become “permanent racial characters” (Fisher, 1999, p.238). These racial characters become the indicator of which race the person belongs; where skin color became one of the first character indicators. Fernando, Ndegwa, and Wilson (1998) contend that Darwin’s theory was the origin of racial hierarchy, since Natural Selection popularized the phrases “survival of the fittest,” and “struggle for existence” and that genetics has a lot to do with fixed characteristics. These might have explained the genocide of the Jews by the Nazis, aiming to have cultural cleansing and leaving the ‘best genes’ to survive. The so called “Social Darwinism” claimed that superior and inferior qualities are innate within a race. This concept gave birth to Eugenics or the movement for eradication of weaker of races such that there is ‘human enhancement.’ Over the years, Eugenics actually revised its meaning many times, giving additional concepts of positive and negative eugenics (McCarrick & Coutts, 1995). Negative eugenics “marriage restriction, sterilization, or custodial commitment of those thought to have unwanted characteristics,” while positive eugenics encourage subjects with desirable traits “to produce more offspring” (McCarrick & Coutts, 1995). Compared with the original idea of eugenics, what has McCarrick and Coutts provided is ore sound, eliminating the mass killing of “weaker genes” and resorting to the control of their numbers; however this did not escape the fact that it is still a form of racism and that the “restriction to marriage” and controlled number of children would eventually end the race. To add, interracial marriage or ‘miscegenation’, as they termed it, is strictly avoided in eugenic laws. Harry Laughlin, a racial propagandist and one of the most important figures in American eugenics movement, believed that miscegenation is “dysgenic, likely to pollute the white gene pool to the detriment of future generations of Americans” (Lombardo, 2008, p.254). In the United States, 30 states enacted the anti-miscegenation laws until its abolition, namely: Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia, Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Indiana, Maryland, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah and Wyoming (Ellis, 1920, p.15). Especially during the early 20th Century, mixed race has been frowned upon by White supremacist. The earliest form of racism is more morally degrading from what is experienced now. The fear of White supremacist on miscegenation generally comes from the concept and system of social stratification. If a person should come from 2 different races, then it would be much difficult to classify him (Dalmage, 2004, p.54). It is noted that the existence of ‘nearly Whites’ poses a threat to the White’s purpose of dominating society with ‘pure-breed’ citizens. Caveat: Of Mixed Race and Race Ifekwunigwe (2004, p.xxi) defines the term mixed race as a description of “individuals who according to popular folk concepts of “race” and by known birth parentage embody two or more worldviews or, in genealogical terms, descent groups.” There are several implications to this definition of mixed race: (1) such concept (i.e., mixed race) is a form of description or presumption; (2), the categories or factors of this description or presumption are defined or determined in twofold; (3), these twofold categories are popular folk concepts and known birth parentage; and (4), a mixed-race person embodies or constitutes two or more descent groups. The most interesting feature in Ifekwunigwe’s categorization of mixed race is the usage or reliance, as criteria, of “popular folk concept” in understanding or defining the term race. In contrast to science -- Ifekwunigwe appears to distrust science for its “dubious criteria” -- the theory or idea of mixed race is largely delineated by folk concepts and not by technical or specialized terminologies. To be categorize as “mixed race” has many and varied implications to an individual being categorized. Following Ifekwunigwe’s meaning of mixed race, an individual who is categorized as mixed race, views the world (e.g., social and political) based largely from such definition or categorization. Moreover, he or she learns the existence of two or more “descent groups” of which such individual comes from. Perhaps such categorization enables the individual in question to expand and multiply his or her worldviews. The apparent dilemma here is the psychological impact to the individual upon comprehending or analyzing his or her “real” position, status, or identity within the societal or “tribal” environment of which he or she lives with. In addition, the problem that may arise from such definition of “mixed race” concerns the form and content of defining, or the defining act of the said term. The question of whose “folk concept” should be used or employed -- in categorizing an individual as mixed race -- poses a great challenge. The discourses pertaining to race and mixed race are contested argumentations. In order to appreciate the meaning of “mixed race,” one has to, first, explore and examine the terrain or terrains associated to race. Ifekwunigwe, for one, has paid respect, although briefly and abruptly, to the discourse or idea of race when she states “according to popular folk concepts of race.” Obviously, the interpreter for the signified of the signifier “race,” in Ifekwunigwe’s viewpoint, rests heavily to the folks or people who possess or own popular folk concepts. This paper, on the other hand, attempts to explore the other meanings or perceptions of the term race -- besides the one outlined by Ifekwunigwe -- by other interpreters. The premise of this paper is that one has to know the meanings and discourses of race question in order to grapple the signifier “mixed race.” In societal context, mixed race settles in the margin of existent and nonexistent, as it tries to weigh its sense of belonging. According to Valentine (2009, p.19), “both whiteness and blackness are defined in terms of blackness” even in the presence of a White parent. In other words, the concept of mixed race becomes ambiguous as they are not generally defined as “mixed” but Black. In this sense, the term mixed race is nonexistent; although it could not digress the fact that it is, in reality, of mixed heritage and an effect of multiculturalism. Cornwell and Stoddard consider the term “multiculturalism” from its two combined words: multi and culture. Moreover, they categorize the meaning of multiculturalism with a strong emphasis on culture rather than ethnicity or racism. Here, Cornwell and Stoddard view the concepts of culture, race, and ethnicity in different ways. In general, they define the terms race and ethnicity in relation to “specious biologism” (Cornwell & Stoddard, 2000, p.12). Conversely, the word “culture” is defined as the “subjectively espoused identities of people.” This implies that culture is not measured by biological or physical classification but rather the subjectivity or non- quantitative aspect of identity or identities; in contrast to race or ethnicity, Cornwell and Stoddard (2000, p.12) contend that culture is transmittable and transformable. Caws (1994 cited in Goldberg, 1994, p.1), however, defines the signifier multiculturalism as a “wide range of social articulations.” That is to say, multiculturalism as a discourse is broad in scope and probably in categorization. The wideness of range characterized in multiculturalism stretches from theory to practice and vice-versa. Caws’s multiculturalism, nevertheless, stresses on the ideational level or articulation of such terminology. In the process, the signifier multiculturalism has the potential of forming or reforming its signified or signification. Understandably, mixed heritage is a product of multiculturalism in which the world embraced. However, it is peculiar to know that the acceptance of mixed heritage is undergoing a long and slow process, and projects a view of an unprepared world for diversity of races. According to Kivisto and Rundblad (2000, p.59), people of mixed heritage are described as “monster like; their humanity is put in question” and would lead to a point where it is understood that mixed race, just as African Americans and ‘colored’ people, are also discriminated even in the era of multiculturalism. On Being Discriminated and Other Problems The hierarchy of race states that Whites are the ones who experience discrimination less than any other race. The experience of Martin Jacques (2003) in Hong Kong, while he was on vacation with his wife, proved that Whites are the ones occupying the top of the racial pyramid. On his account, he said that he felt more respect and deference from the native folks in Hong Kong than his wife, despite the fact that his wife is Asian and is a good conversant in Cantonese while he is a stranger in the said country. The intimacy of Jacques’ wife towards Chinese did not take effect in protecting herself from discrimination, since she is Indian-Malaysian. The general perception of other races about Whites would reflect upon their treatment towards them. Just as what happened to Jacques and his wife, the former received better attention from the locals than the latter, who lived in Hong Kong for quite some time. The irony in this situation may be culturally dictated but what is apparent, and most likely the fact, is that White people gain more positive attention than their “colored” counterparts. As how Jacques (2003) quotes it, “whites are peculiarly and uniquely insensitive to race and racism, and the power relations this involves [and] variably the beneficiaries, never the victims.” (par.5). The so called “White supremacy” is even portrayed in popular media, as White characters and performers gain more attention than the performers from race of color, with few exemptions such as Beyonce Knowles, who recently got involved with a racial issue over her appearance in L’Oreal promotional ad (see figure 1 of appendix a) (Li, 2008. n.pag.). According to Ashtana (2008), skin color matters are still a delicate issue, even with the rise of multiculturalism and often seen as a yardstick of universal view of beauty. It is perceived that White men and women easily find their way to stardom. Such concept is believed to be the cause of the beauty product company giant to ‘whitewash’ Beyonce’s skin tone in that promotional ad, which has nothing to do with whitening products; it is an ad for their newest line of hair color. Although some say that Beyonce was almost unrecognizable in that ad, her spokesperson contended that even with a lighter skin tone, one can still tell that it is Beyonce in that picture. Furthermore, the singer also signed a contract with L’Oreal as their spokesperson and advertiser provided that they would not make tremendous changes in her physical appearance (Anonymous, 2008; Li, 2008). This year, Beyonce once again caused a commotion because of her ‘black face’ photo shoot which is supposed to be a way of honoring her roots in Western Africa. The photo shoot was for a French magazine L’Officiel where Beyonce, a fair skinned African American lady, has to be painted with a darker shade of brown on her face, causing critics to react as it is “more akin to black face” (Blanco, 2011). The term ‘black face’ has a “controversial history” and was a derogatory term to call African Americans, and such historical background is the reason why the photo shoot was labeled racist (Blanco, 2011). To this point, Beyonce is seen to be in an awkward situation, if referring to both photo shoots with the last as a product of misinterpretation. According to Tracey Ford, Beyonce’s photos from L’Officiel should be viewed as the singer’s dedication to her African roots rather than a racist, stressing that African women “come in different shades” and that is what Beyonce wants to emphasize (Blanco, 2011). Spencer (2011, par.16) asserts that in the United States, the orders of racial hierarchy are as follows: Whites, Asians, Hispanics, and Blacks. The groups in between could be interchanged by some scholars, but the end points--White and Black--are fixed (Spencer, 2011). This hierarchy might suppose that those in between might be coming from mixed race status, but it did not say about where exactly do mixed race people should be placed. Basically, people who are neither White nor Black are seen in two manners: the invisible and the ones similar to blacks facing the same consequences of being persons of color (Katz, 1996, p.191). More so, mixed race people are often pathologised. Modern anti-racism advocates reject the thought of biological reasons of discrimination, as they find no correlation between the act of discrimination and the supposed biological factors causing it. Banks (1992) stated that "social and biological idea of race represents a collection of pseudo-logical rationalization based on a confusion of emotions, prejudiced judgments and disordered values" directly casting off the connection between biology and discrimination (cited in Katz, 1996, p.191). However, Katz (1996, pp.191-192) contends that Banks’ concept oversees three points: first, “biology is primary and that biology is more real than social differences;” second, “there are other categorizations which are valid for discrimination;” and last, “it is legitimate to use political beliefs which are obviously not a biological factor.” In this note, the relevance of genetics and discrimination is emphasized. On the other hand, Zack (1994, p. 69) contradicts to this assumption stating that if sanguinity should be the primary indicator, then cultural alterations would have existed in blood transfusions. To say that the term ‘race’ is nonexistent, there would have been no mixed race, nor white race, black or yellow, if it should follow the concepts concerning race and genetics. When a White man and a Black woman are seen intimate to each other (e.g. holding hands), most people would stare at them, suggesting that it is unlikely for them to see two different races together. According to Val Hoskins, a coordinator of People in Harmony, people of mixed heritage and inter racial dating is gaining more social acceptance, but the process is slow (cited in Harris, 2006, par.6). Such discrimination, even in the advent of anti-racism philosophies, still exists for mixed race people aside from the Blacks. Mixed race couple may not be able to have an agreeable reaction from the society they belong. In the mainstream media, inter racial relationships between a black woman and a white man is unlikely, and on the occasion of producing such films with certain inter-racial relationship plot and sub-plot, this becomes a subject of criticism. Take for example the movie Monsters Ball, which gave the African American actress Halle Berry the best actress award and becomes the first African American women to receive such award, displeased some of the African American men. Intimate scenes of Halle Berry with another White character were described as “in-your-face taunt among African American men” by an African American blogger (Henderson, 2006, p.77). Not only those beautiful African American girls would be in the hands of the White character, but also, African American men are more likely to have negative roles such as robbers, promiscuous, and other racist themes. Inter racial marriages are basically short-lived. Schwartzman (2010) reported that in 2002, 1.2% of the number of divorced cases were from multiracial couples, which is actually 6.3 times higher than the previous statistics. The figures can be explained by the “social barriers associated with inter-ethnic marriages” where some remain to be nonresistant (Lewis & Yancey, 2008, p.35). The differences of their racial identities somehow margin their ability to fully understand each other. Lewis and Yancey (2008, p.35) contended that “the history of interracial romance” may likewise affect the existing attitudes of racial groups today towards each other. As opposed to the theory which presses biology as a main factor of interracial hostility, couples nowadays are more concern toward social matters, rooting from history and the desire of the White race to maintain dominance. In Coombes’s (2000, pp.90-91) book entitled Hybridity and its discontents, she cited three points which express mixed race’s discrimination. The idea of mixed race is so contested that adolescents from mixed heritage are directly associated with the Black race, even in the presence of a parent coming from the other race. It is found out that about 51% of mixed parentage actually indicated in the survey that they wanted to change their skin color, and preferred to belong in one racial background, as opposition to racial dualism. The reason is to prevent name calling and discrimination in institutions. Although parents would always tell them to be proud of their heritage, majority of the adolescents tend to decline this advice and continue “to use the term they chose.” Although modern racial ideas had come in terms with biracial acceptance, it might not be true to United Kingdom, that even national dailies would express their opposition towards inter racial relationships because of their concern about their children’s sense of identity. Wilson (1987, cited in Coombes, 2000, p.77) asserts that mixed race children are most likely to have identity problems “because of their ambiguous social positions.” Tizard and Phoenix (2002, p.43) noted that identity crisis is most likely to be experienced by people of mixed heritage and using the said term to describe their identity problems. However, in the 1920’s, Robert Park coined the term ‘marginal man’ which summarized the “predicament of those predestined to live in two cultures and two worlds” (Tizard & Phoenix, p.43). The society’s perception towards inter racial relationships and parentage of children with mixed race background may be apparent in Western countries, but that does not exclude other cultures from being discriminated to mixed heritage. Schwartzman (2010) reported the story of Eun-ji, a “Kosian” child who was abandoned by her parents after they divorced. Kosian is the term to call a person who has one Korean parent and the other one is of another Asian nationality. In Eun-ji’s case, she is of Mongolian-Korean ancestry. Eun-ji was left in the orphanage because no one was able to take care of her; her father is suffering from stroke while her mother went back to Mongolia. Eun-ji is not a solitary case in Seoul, particularly in Sangrok Orphanage. There are other children in that orphanage who were left by their parents (mostly multiracial) because of several reasons. Caballero, Edwards and Puthussery (2008, p.3) asserted that "children from mixed relationships" are labeled as hybrid degeneration or hybrid vigor which means that they would have to confront two contentions when time comes: to carry the burden of being mixed race or to feel culturally rich about it. These two choices are overlooked by most people of mixed race. While they are generally viewed as genetically weaker and an outcast from social divisions, there is also a chance for them to be genetically better. Mixed Race in the New Social Constructs The idea of White is beautiful has been in the Western societies for centuries, and those people of color are generally the second class citizens. White supremacy could be blamed on Hitler’s ideal of generating a race of superior genes causing the Jewish Holocaust. Of all the racial qualities, one which is apparent and distinct would be the skin color. In the Western world, White and Black are two major racial groups, overshadowing those who are in the middle. Perhaps because of their historical implications, the colors White and Black has always been on the center stage, which was totally unprepared to what globalization has to offer: the growing population of mixed race identities. Going back to Spencer’s (2011) racial hierarchy, the Whites and the Blacks occupy the top and the bottom of the racial pyramid respectively, and those in the Middle are Asians and Hispanics. Noticeably, ‘mixed’ race is no where within the hierarchy. This can have both negative and positive implications. The dominance of White is prevalent and a general knowledge; although some would disagree in varying levels. This idea of White supremacy goes a long way back in the transatlantic slave trade where Europeans went to Africa for increase of manpower in their plantations. Indeed, White and Black are two colors dominating the historical spectrum. Mixed race is a point in which these two opposing colors meet, and generally becomes the eye for social scrutiny. However mixed race is contended to be weaker and disadvantaged in the points gathered at the early part of this paper, recent study shows that mixed heritage is generally possesses more advantageous traits than the ‘pure-bred’ ones (Prasad, 2009, n.pag.). Modern genetic perspective suggests that diversity is better than being exclusive in terms of reproduction, as the alteration of genetic patterns enables mixed heritage individuals to be more adaptive to external changes and resistant to diseases. This can be explained to gene pairing patterns among products of out breeding; their genes are efficient in copying, such that broken gene patterns are more like minor mistakes as gene copying takes place. If the child is unable to repair broken genes by copying, he or she is likely to suffer a disease and eventually die if left untreated (Channel 4, 2009, p.3). Furthermore, Dr. Mark Shiver found out that mixed race is “more symmetrical than the rest of race, which would mean that people of mixed race are more attractive, having less infection, being less stressed, and having greater genetic diversity (cited in Prasad, 2009, n.pag.). Mixed race people are more likely to have a good functioning copy of each gene...which means they are more likely to have healthy biological systems to enable them to cope with stress” (Prasad, 2009, n.pag.). Biological aside, modern views on mixed heritage, especially with the emergence of persons with mixed race background, are viewed as more socially flexible to those who embrace their biracial nature (Cloud, 2009, par.6). It has been argued by psychologists whether having mixed race is advantageous or not especially to the children’s social identity, but the study of the Journal of Social Issues finally gave a conclusion that multiracial kids often take pride of their heritage and that choosing a side would neither help nor alleviate the situation, and doing such would make certain psychological damages to them in an attempt to “pass” the requirement of being “pure-bred.” Conclusion The birth of mixed race aroused several discourses about racial ‘purity’, miscegenation, and eugenics. As a growing number of racial minorities, mixed race is faced with questions on acceptance, whether they fit to one ethnicity or would rather stay diverse as they are. Going back to the historical implications of mixed race and the views of Hitlerian thought supported by the concept of Eugenics, it is known that mixed race is also discriminated, perhaps as a threat to White superiority. However, modern geneticists can attest that such monstrosity having been associated with mixed race is rather partial. They were proven to be generally genetically superior to any pure-breeds and therefore, reclaiming their place in the society. On the other hand, to say that mixed-race is superior is racist itself and could oversees individual differences as basis of judgment. Race, as proven in a certain part of this paper, is basically coming from social constructs than biological. Therefore, the separation of mixed race from Black and White suggests that social ideals are the culprit of discrimination and that White supremacy sprang from the incorrect rationalization about race superiority, which is actually nonexistent. References Anonymous, 2008. Beauty brand LOreal accused of whitewashing Beyonce. [Online] (Updated 08 August 2008) Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-1042675/Beauty-brand-LOreal-accused-whitewashing-Beyonce.html [Accessed 20 April 2011]. 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