The Definition of Childhood through Time and Its Transition into Adulthood - Essay Example

?Thesis: Critically evaluate the claim that adolescents and young people both today and in earlier time periods have always been demonised and represented negatively? Since the concept of childhood and adulthood, the concept of adolescents has not always been understood as needed in history. The writer will explain the definition of childhood through time and it's transition into adulthood. It will be shown that adolescence has not always existed. The different theoretical perspectives of the concepts of young people and adolescence are recent developments as a result of the change of work ethics and family ethics . When an understanding of an adolescent/young people has been established, examples will be shown of how and why they have been/ are seen by adults in ways that demonise them and represent them negatively. The writer will then explore the ramifications of the adults' perception and the impact they have on young people. As a conclusion this perception leads to how and why adults might perceive young people and adolescents to be unruly and/or a threat to social stability. The need to analyse the different stages of age is contributed to society's concept of age. Some societies in history considered the transition from childhood to adulthood without passing through adolescence. Childhood is defined as the stage in life from birth to 12 years of age. (Macionis & Plummer, 2005) Childhood is not considered as having a natural transition point but it is a continual process of development. Aries (1960:128) “In medieval society the idea of childhood did not exist; this is not to suggest that children were neglected, forsaken or despised. The idea of childhood is not to be confused with affection for children: it corresponds to an awareness of the particular nature of childhood, which distinguishes the child from the young adult. In medieval society there was a lack of awareness. As soon as the child could live without the constant solicitude of his mother, his nanny or his cradle-rocker, he became part of the adult society”. Children were seen as miniature adults (Aries, 1960) dressing and working as adults . Emile Durkheim (as cited in Jenks, 1982:147) goes on to describe the child as “the purist of beings, a small body that the merest blow can break, that the slightest illness imperils, a collection of muscles, nerves and organs which are, so to speak, made of milk and which only form, develop and increase in strength by their beings placed in a wonderful environment of careful attention, of consideration, of favourable circumstances and protective influences”. In Romeo and Juliet, a maiden was a young woman who was ready for marriage, having obviously reached puberty implicitly implying "menses" but still having her nurse. Shakespeare portrays young people/children as wilily or in need of protection because of the adults perception of having a family grudge. Biologically speaking , a child is defined not having sexual hormones in other words not having reached puberty. He/she is not an adolescent, no having reached Erikson's stage of identity and role confusion. (Erikson, 1959) Saraga (1998 and Macionis & Plummer, 2005) points out that historically children have been seen either as innocent (Montgomery, 2003) , vulnerable and in need of protection; or they have been seen as asocial, inherently evil and in need of firm control and discipline. In early Christianity both concepts are present suggesting that the child is innocent (Pollock, 1983) or that the child is born in a state of original sin (Powell , 1917; Schucking, 1969). The child, who was born wicked and full of sin, needed to have the wickedness removed through punishment or strong discipline. (Pollock, 1983) Rituals such as Baptism or Christening continue today to symbolize the purification of babies and small children. Demonising or representing children or young people negatively in a religious context, was used as a form of control and a reasoning for punishment. In art work, representing adolescents and young people in a less than positive light started in the Baroque period in the 17th century. As art became more expressive, more interaction was shown between the sexes. Art portrayed sin and, or innocence in the same painting. Cunningham (2006) suggests, as children’s roles changed slowly, it allowed them to make their place slowly in society. In the middle ages, children were not viewed as members of society. They stayed on the periphery. As society became interdependent children left childhood to develop into young people/adolescents. They were considered to work as members of any society. As time evolved, and life spans lengthened, a child's possibility of living beyond childhood was more probable. The concept of adolescence became a viable part of society. With the start of the industrial revolution, adolescents and older children were seen working on farms, factories or offices. There were no laws keeping children in school until the end of WW1. Despite the importance of the amount of income, these ‘miniature adults’ (Aries. P 1960) were adding to the income stream of the19th and early 20th century, society started to view child labour as being dangerous. Adults portrayed children/adolescents negatively in written medium. Only after WWI, Laws and Legislations were enacted abolishing child labour, guaranteeing that children had some form of education/schooling and emphasising good health in the form of better diets and an active outdoor lifestyle. Television and cinema have helped in the last one hundred years to have a widely known adolescent culture of clothing, customs and music which is completely different from what was classed as mini adults (Aries. P 1960). Adolescence is a word which comes from the Latin adolescere word meaning ‘to grow into maturity’ Gross et al (2000). Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood (Jenks, 1996). The timeline as to when adolescence begins and ends differs from theorist to theorist and from culture to culture (Macionis & Plummer, 2005). However in contemporary Britain, it is the time from puberty until one becomes a full adult or is labelled an adult. Hendry & Kloep (1999) categorise the transitional stage of adolescence as normative and non-normative. The normative maturational change includes growth spurt, voice breaking for young boys, wet dreams, romantic relationships, increasing autonomy and responsibility. The normative social dependent change is expected to go from primary school to high school; then leave high school to start university or find a job. Normative social change considers attaining the legal age to vote, and to purchase alcohol. It is also considered part of adolescence to be part of the norm to have sex and perhaps to get a job. Non normative examples are those events which are not day to day occurrences: illness, family bereavement, war, disruption of peer network and risk taking behaviours. The length of the stage adolescence is delayed in different cultures/societies depending on socio-economic standards. The transition of becoming independent is interrelated on leaving the parental home and making it on one's own. Financial viability or finishing one's studies is conclusive on attaining adulthood. Having to depend on parental support, continues the stage of adolescence. In African cultures, this phenomena does not exist as a child becomes an adult upon reaching puberty. In religious cultures, adolescence is cut short by marrying early and taking on responsibilities that are usually taken on upon adulthood. From a theorist perspective there seems to be very little disagreement that adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood however Bandura (1964) and Hollingworth (1928) believed that the transition was not dependent on human development but a question of social psychology. Society determines the stage of when a child goes from adolescence to adulthood. Furthermore Friedenberg (1959), Erikson (1959) and Sherif (1947) considered adolescence as the crucial period for the formation of the mature ego. Mead's supported this idea when she stated: "In most societies adolescence is a period of re-examination, and possible reorientation" (Mead, 1949, p.361, as cited in Muuss, 1975, p.267). Piaget (1947) sees adolescence as a "decisive turning point...at which the individual rejects, or at least revaluates everything that has been inculcated in him, and acquires a personal point of view and a personal place in life."  Theorists agree that this time in life is essential in becoming aware of past and future events. Muuss (1975) expands on this by collating the thought that adolescence take part in definite planning of vocational activities, preparation for marriage, and the establishment of more specific and lasting life goals, including the need for achieving emotional and economic independence. Stanley Hall (1905) in 1904 undertook his study of ‘adolescence’ which recognised the stage between childhood and adulthood as adolescence. Hall stated that this was a period of ‘storm and stress’ (Hall, 1905 cited in Hendrick, 1990)..Ferudi (2001) points out that ‘Parents complain that their authority is continually weakened by outside pressure’. Whilst Mayall (2002) points out that ‘Compared to 30 years ago, adolescence are more sharply polarized by parental income’. Hence by Hall identifying this stage between adulthood and childhood he identifies that parents have a continued responsibility upon children until a later age. The previous assumption that children moved immediate from childhood into adulthood was no longer valid. Now that we have a clear understanding of adolescence, the author will show how crime media and poverty contribute to the demonization of adolescence. As a side note, it is interesting to point out that adolescence was identified as a cause of delinquency in the Victorian period` (Gillis, 1974: 171). Statistics only represent reported crimes. In the UK, crimes started to be recorded nationally in 2006. (Walker, 1995; Hugh Dougherty, 2004). ‘In 2002, over 481,000 people were found guilty of or were cautioned for an indictable offence in England and Wales’ (Macionis and Plummer, 2005:429) ‘The age span of young people convicted for offense peaked at 19 for boys and 15 for girls’ (Macionis and Plummer, 2005:429) 45% of recorded crime is committed by young people under the age of 21 (Bailey, 1997) and one out of two crimes committed by males are between the age of 14 and 25. One in three females between the age of 14 and 25 have admitted to committing an offense. The 1996 statistics from the Home Office show that 25% of known offenders are between 10 and 15 year olds.(Home Office, 1997). Crime can be seen as a criminal deviance which can range from minor traffic violations to much more serious offences such as child abuse, murder or rape (Macionis and Plummer, 2005). In cinema and television, the portrayal of young adults is demonised. The number of pubs in the UK report that 21 year old drinking habit has become a national sport. Advertisements is a form of showing the negative side of young adults. The image given of the smoking, pub going, 21 year old is not a young man or woman dressed in a suit and holding a brief case on his/her way to work. A difference is made between the demonization of young men and the portrayal of young women. More women are shown in positive settings than in a negative environment in the public media. It can also be the opposite where the young woman is shown in a pub, smoking, dressed to entice and be drunk. This is our media today. Heidensohn (1996) states 'Sex differences are perhaps, the most significant feature of recorded crime’. For men and women the level of crime and their experience of being the victim differs (Heidensohn, 1992). 80% of offenders are male (Home Office, 1999). Messerschmidt (1993) focuses on the crime rates of youth and how they act on streets. Adolescents are imitating the consequences of parents bad behaviour (Nurture) or reacting to the impact society has on them (Nature). Their attitudes can be determined from the impact of the demonization on the young adult/adolescent by the adults in their environment or the influence of the local society: regions and neighbourhoods. Adolescent crime is a result of family environment and community (Schlegel and Barry). 'Stress and Storm' stage phase in adolescence is a young person in full puberty living in an area with high drug use or prostitution and how the disastrous consequences of the community influences the young person. The influence and impact of demonising adolescence/young adults are affected by all levels of society. As young men are portrayed, they act accordingly. As women are portrayed, they act. They are nurturing and have been nurtured. They have been less affected by poverty and are portrayed less violently by the media. Adults consider them less violent and more like "little adults". They represented a small percentage of the prison population as their crimes are not premeditated and not as violent. (Heidensohn, 1992). They rarely commit professional crimes. The peak of the crime is theft and handling of stolen goods. Men commit drug offences, violent assault , criminal damage, robbery and sexual offences (Macionis and Plummer, 2005). In cinema, the differentiate of criminal offences are the same, the most crimes women commit are prostitution, and petty theft. Adolescent icons from the media, computer games, music etc add in helping to create a culture of their own. Adolescents tend identify and follow this culture. (Decker, 2003). Media is a social tool which impacts upon adolescents behaviour. The question rises why men commit more crime than women? Could this be due to their lives as adolescents; and the influence nature and nurture has on them? Adolescence is generally a time which is often associated with the dangers of the future because their morals and norms are set differently than were set in previously generations. Youths form a culture based on their own identification with the impact of their nature and nurture. Culture is a learned behaviour that is socially acquired, therefore the media that is regarded as a social tool will have a greater impact upon adolescent behaviours and thoughts than adults'. Adolescent crime can be turned around as it is a result of the perception adults have on adolescents, rebellion, and self perception. The adult is rebelling without multiple solutions other than removal from society. The media is very influential in forming an individual’s opinion. “The mass media are not just changing the outside world but they appear to be undermining the inner world” (Howitt: 1982:4). Howitt emphasises the power of the media. Watching television and reading newspaper influences inner egos. It’s important to note that ‘it was only in the 1920’s- according to the oxford dictionary- that people began to speak about the media. A generation later in the 1950’s they spoke about the ‘communication’ revolution’ (Briggs and Burke, 2002: 1). Early in the communication era, radio was used to get the public’s attention. The importance of mass communication in the 1950’s led to the television age (Briggs and Burke, 2002). Today mass media plays a huge role in society using different means of communication. (Kelly, 2004) In Britain today, having a television has become a norm in society. “99% of all households in the UK own at least one television; 86% have a digital-recorder, renting an average of ten films per year. In 2002, 85% of adult watched television daily”. (Macionis and Plummer, 2005:578). Between advertisements, television programs and films, adults perceive; and adolescents/young people react to the demonization of their age group. It has become part of society to see crime, drugs and violent young adults in mass media rather than peaceful adolescents. A film sells more copies if the story is more stimulating; and the audience does not have to think. The same can apply to computer games and television programs. Technology and mass communication are a part of everyday life (Kelly, 2004). Mass media is a global phenomenon (Macionis and Plummer, 2005). Violence, demoralizing and demonization have been discussed. The effect of the fantasy world and the consumer 'want or have to have society' is also a negative effect. Though it is not as strong, the lack of not keeping up with peer pressure can be a form of demonization. Parents are influenced and contribute to this form of mass media marketing. Having the latest gadgets and clothing allows the adolescents to bond within their own peer groups. A subculture develops new ideas and thoughts, they tend to have their own new group standards and rules that all members need to follow. This subculture differs from the subculture which stems from social problems. Decker studied delinquent male youths from working class backgrounds in youth subcultures.(Decker,2003) Lower- class youths tend to have more delinquency as they have less opportunity to achieve success in the more conventional ways (Macionis and Plummer, 2005). Middle-class adolescence are influenced by the demonization of peer pressure of group standards. As it has been mentioned previously media has an enormous influence in manipulating individuals' opinions. When the media shows a demonised adolescent, the public is influenced in thinking likewise. BBC News home editor Mark Easton (2006) goes on to say “In Britain we have come to both demonise and fear our teenagers: the yobs, the hoodies, the street gangs - the Asbo generation which terrorises neighbourhoods”. He also mentions "Kids hanging around" is now regarded as the greatest social nuisance of our age” and “As the new IPPR report puts it: "Commentators fear that British youth is on the verge of mental breakdown, at risk from anti-social behaviour, self-harm, drug and alcohol abuse”. Adolescents are demonised because they are criminals and they are criminals because they are shown as being demonised. We have all been at the stage of adolescence but only some of us have committed crime. Society is a contradiction, adolescents are represented as the future generation and the hope for society or they are seen as a group of ‘kids’ hanging around on street corners (Easton , 2006). If all adolescents are generalized and put into one group labelled as failures, then they will start acting that way. Adolescents have many un-mitigating issues which could lead them in taking part in crime such as low income, poor housing, deteriorated inner city areas, a high degree of impulsiveness and hyperactivity, low intelligence, low school attainment, poor parental supervision, a lack of discipline, parental conflict and broken families (Macionis and Plummer, 2005). As adolescence goes through many developmental, and personal growth changes . He/she is highly influenced by the negative social environmental points mentioned by Macionis and Plummer. Poverty influence children today and in the past. Poverty describes ‘unacceptable hardship’ (May et al, 2001.) There are two types of poverty : absolute poverty and relative poverty. Degrees of poverty are differentiated between developed and undeveloped countries and between different social groups. Absolute poverty concern the basic needs and covers all groups. The biological needs for basic survival i.e. food, water, shelter and clothing. Relative poverty is associated with the lifestyles in society and is based on what individuals own. Society conception of what is necessary for people to have beyond food and clothing is manipulated by mass media.. Not having specific consumer goods can result in social exclusion from the society where one lives. In the United Kingdom the number of people living in poverty has augmented in geometric growth in the past decade. Society does not calculate poverty equally because there is short term and long term poverty. Long term poverty has increased. In 1979 one in ten children were living in poverty. By 1991 the proportion had increased to one in six (DOH, 1993). Globally poverty hits children the hardest. In Britain, the social infra structure is set up to protect children. The highest percentage of child poverty takes place in low income countries, “some 35,000 children die each day from preventable or easily treatable disease” (Bradshaw & Wallace, 1996:15). Infant mortality is caused by those denied adequate food/water, secure housing and access to medical care as it was in the medieval period or in some parts of the world today. “Each year 18 million babies die prematurely from poverty related causes” (Macionis & Plummer, 2005:226). Often children leave their families and prefer to ‘stand on their own two feet’. (Lebra, 1994) “Some 100 million of the world’s children have deserted their families altogether, sleeping and living on the streets as best as they can. Roughly half of all street children are found in Latin America. Brazil, where much of the population has flocked to cities in a desperate search for a better life. These countries have millions of street children-many not yet teenagers-living in makeshift huts, under bridges or in alleyways” (Macionis & Plummer, 2005:226) perceiving the effect of mass media and demonising of young adults as a better way of life. In the U.K the child support agency help mothers to support the financial needs of the children. Its aim was to ensure that the fathers provided contribution for the upbringing of their children and to reduce the expenditure that government pays out through income support. Despite the improvements of living conditions, access to medical care, the introduction to legislations and Acts, the means of income from government to help mothers, poverty exist within our society effecting adolescents . Youth and the crimes which they are committing will always be `a constant source of research and concern for politicians, media commentators and academic analysts` (Muncie, 1999: 2). Instead of looking at the behaviours of the adolescent, politicians have and will demonise the youth by focusing on the crimes they commit. To conclude, adolescents have been and are continued to be demonised and represented negatively. In the last 200 years it has been shown that adolescents and young people are a defined group. strongly influenced by what is occurring within one self and by one's surroundings. ‘Adolescence and early childhood is a period for reshaping values and ideas and exploring ones relationship to the world’ (Brake, 1980:25), it's not about committing crime, even though `Fear of crime has become increasingly used as an indicator of how pervasive the problem of crime is, or at least how concerned the public has become` (Mirrlees-Black et al., 1996: 49). Adolescent behaviour, deemed inappropriate by society, is in this period of storm and stress. Their behaviour is not a demonization of society's perception of young people. Media's portrayal is society's exaggeration of living in sin.. References and bibliography Aries, P. (1960) Centuries of Childhood. New York : Vintage Books. Austin, Joe, and Michael Nevin Willard. 1998. 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