The Key Elements of the Major Personality Theories - Essay Example

1. Summarize the key elements of the major personality theories (e.g. type and trait theories, psychodynamic theories, humanistic theories, etc.) discussed in the text. There is a broad array of personality theories. Within the text one of the most prominent theories is that of the type of trait theory. Within this context the individual’s personality is believed to fall into categories or specific traits. While most individuals are familiar with the concepts of introversion and extroversion, there is a broad array of theoretical perspectives that seek to categorize the individual through such distinctions. Another theoretical perspective within this context of understanding examined birth order as a pivotal element in determining the individual’s personality development. It’s believed that personality is shaped within this perspective as individuals must develop nitche personalities as a means of competing within the social environment. This trait theory has much in common with behavioral perspectives on personality construction. Behaviorism contends that all personality is a biologically rooted in experience. Behavioral therapy contends that since behavior is learned through such experience, it can similarly be unlearned. The behaviorist therapeutic approach then functions by examining specifically the individual behaviors of the patient, identifying instances that might be problematic, and then developing means of correcting these behaviors through objective goal setting. It is predominantly rooted in the theories of B.F. Skinner who identified this process of learned behavior as classical conditioning, and outlined a number of means that such behavior can be reinforced and altered through stimulus and reward. (George & Cristiani 1995) The behavioral approach identifies psychic problems as rooted in experience and action. The behavioral model understands human actions as in part an element out of conscious control. While the behaviorists aren’t reliant on unconscious impulses that motivate human action, they acknowledge that merely consciously acknowledging that one has a problem is not enough to fix it. Instead, the behavioral model encourages reinforcement techniques designed to condition the mind and impulses to adopt more rational and functional behavior. In addition to the type and trait theories there is the psychodynamic approach that links personality development a number of psychosexual stages that the individual must advance through as a means of reaching adult consciousness. As the behavioral model is rooted in the highly testable scientific foundations that B.F. Skinner outlines, it has the benefit of objectivity where other therapeutic processes, namely psychodynamic, have been deemed pseudo-science. For example, when attempting to treat insomnia the psychodynamic would focus on the unconscious problems underlining the occurrences, whereas the behavioral therapeutic model would attempt to modify the behavior of sleeplessness. Finally, there exists the personality approach known as humanism. There is a wide-variety of humanistic personality theories, with existential humanism representing one of the primary approaches. The humanistic model is primarily rooted in the concept that individual identity is an element of personal choice and as such the therapeutic process is centered along developing individual responsibility and personal meaning. The main tenants of this perspective are that the individual is ultimately in control of their own life and personality and in achieving happiness and liberation they must accept this responsibility and move ahead with their lives. 2. Describe Freud's theory of personality development and the role of the id, ego, and superego. 

   Sigmund Freud wasn’t the first to investigate the biological ramifications of the unconscious, but his early 20th century psychological examinations and development of psychoanalysis make him the progenitor of the psychodynamic approach to personality (Kovel 1987). While psychoanalysis has been extended into a broad range of analytic fields, most notably literature, its implications for biological personality theory have largely been linked to his assertion that unconscious childhood or past-life experiences are oftentimes repressed by the individual, causing them to deleteriously affect later life functioning (Geldard 1998). Most individuals are familiar with Freud’s characterization of the personality as differentiated into three categories of ego, super-ego, and id. When considering the relevancy for this personality theory for psychodynamic counseling it’s important to note that Freud believed that the conscious elements represented by the ego in certain situations experienced cognitive overload resulting in repression as a protective mechanism. The superego then functions as a regulatory mechanism as a means of counteracting these harmful id components and balancing out the individual’s ego function. A number of objections have surfaced in response to psychodynamic theory that has largely marginalized it as a scientific approach. One of the most prominent is the general rejection of many of Freud’s theories as largely unscientific, as their assumptions are predicated on untestable hypotheses (Corey 1991). While the psychodynamic therapeutic approach is broadly defined its foundational elements are rooted in Freudian psychoanalytic literature and investigations that identify the root cause of patient malaise in unconsciously repressed factors from past-life experiences. While psychodynamic therapy has a long history, it’s difficult to test hypotheses have led critics to deride it as pseudo-science, and its relatively high burden and skill requirements have marginalized it as a therapeutic process. It’s for these reasons that cognitive and behaviorist theories took replaced psychodynamic therapy as the predominant practices in the later 20th century psychological counseling. 3. Explain how IQ is computed. List and describe the theories of intelligence. 

 The IQ test, or intelligence quotient measures the relation between the individual’s mental age in relation to their chronological age. There are a number of factors that go into determining individual intelligence quotient. One of the basic equations in these regards is structured as IQ = mental age/chronological age X 100. Within this perspective then the IQ is calculated based on the input figures and revealed in numerical form. While IQ has become one of the most renowned features of intelligence theory, there are also a wide variety of theoretical approaches to the concept. Another predominant intelligence theory is that of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale. This theory of intelligence examines individual thought without the inclusion of verbal test dimensions. This theory functioned through gaining individual’s IQ score as well as developing subsets of thought on the matter. In addition to intelligence theories articulated in terms of the intelligence quotient there are a number of broad ranging theories of human intellect. Among these theories includes a spectrum of understanding that ranges from mental retardation to what is considered giftedness. IQ factors into this equation as individuals on the low-end of the intelligence quotient spectrum are classified as mentally retarded; conversely, those individuals that score high on the opposite end of this spectrum and referred to as gifted. Whereas previous conceptions of have identified gifted intelligence as being above the 130 IQ mark, more recent conceptions have linked this trait to a more thorough approach. One such perspective concerns personality development and intelligence from a three-pronged approach wherein ability, creativity, and task completion are weighed in proportion as means of distinguishing gifted thought processing. Extending from this thought processing are theories that take a multi-dimensional approach. For instance, psychometric theories of intelligence implement statistical analysis as a means of correlating varying personal elements of intelligence in relation to each other. These multi-pronged approaches to intelligence are common throughout the literature, with perhaps the most notable being Richard Gardner’s theories of multiple intelligences as it pervades educational thought. 4. Define stress, including the role of cognitive appraisal and coping strategies. While most individuals are familiar with the concept of stress, few have a clinical understanding of what it constitutes. Stress has been understood as the pattern of reactions an organism makes in response to external factors that threaten its existence. The specific types of factors that influence the individual’s reaction then are referred to as stressors. Within this understanding there are a variety of means of cognitive appraisal that are implemented by psychologists and researchers. Some of the most prevalent such means of cognitive appraisal are the determined through physiological factors. The physiological appraisal methods include such examples as acute and chronic stress. There are further distinguishing features within this mode of thinking as the individual’s flight or flight response is implemented, which in-turn activates the hypothalamus as a means of triggering emotional responses. This becomes part of the ANS system, which regulates many emotional reactions within the body related to stress. Another coping mechanism is the General Adaption Syndrome; within this spectrum of understanding there are three general stages of stress. The first stage is an alarm reaction stage, and this is followed by a stage of resistance and then ultimately a stage of exhaustion. Other means of cognitive appraisal include various articulations on the types of events that potentially bring on stress related factors. In these regards, post-traumatic stress disorder has been noted to be a major element in stress related symptoms. Similarly, traumatic events have been demonstrated to have greatly contributed to the stress levels individuals encounter. In addition to these factors there are a number of elements related to coping with stress. In terms of coping, some of the most important factors necessary are for the individual to appraise their stress levels and then implement furthered measures of variable moderation. References American Medical Association 1996, 'Integration of behavioral and relaxation approaches into the treatment of chronic pain and insomnia', The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 276, no. 4: 313-318. Corey, G. (1991), Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy 4th edn, Brooks/Cole USA. George, R. & Cristiani, T. (1995), Counseling: Theory and Practice, 4th edn, Allyn & Bacon USA. Jacobson, E., in Cormier, L. & Hackney, H. (1993), The Professional Counselor: A Process Guide to Helping Read More