Discrimination: Race and Sex - Term Paper Example

Discrimination inserts his/her Inserts Cases of discrimination have been a common sight in the world today. Not long ago Novartis Pharmaceutical Corp. was rewarded with $253 million in damages for charges of discrimination (REUTERS, 2010). It is therefore, essential to describe the term discrimination here. The Oxford dictionary describes discrimination as the “unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex”. Discrimination adds to the woes of the minority group by lowering their morale and threatening their self-esteem which is a basic need according to Maslow’s need hierarchy (Gillam, 1995). By feeling threatened, productivity of the minority group is sure to go down to the extent that organizations and entities lose valuable human potential (Crosby, Stockdale, & Ropp, 2007). On the other hand, suits of discrimination result in costly lawsuits against the firms and can result in loss of reputation and goodwill which cannot easily be recovered. It is therefore, of utmost importance that organizations address this area by curbing discriminatory practices. The paper shall shed light on two of the most common forms of discrimination, race and sex. Before delving into specific cases of discrimination, it is important to know what discrimination is and what psychological notions give birth to it. Theories regarding the way people view themselves and how they feel about themselves are aplenty in psycho-sociological literature. Since what we perceive about ourselves is kernel to what we think we are, what we think we can do, and how best we think we can do it (Tan, Dalisay, Zhang, Han, & Merchant, 2010), one can find a vast number of studies regarding the nature of self-perception and its relation to other constructs. Because studies in this field focus on the basic human need to understand who they are and why they exist, self-perception is arguably one of the most significant cognitive structures organizing an individuals experience and, thus, has been represented as an appropriate starting point for developing a cognitive theory of how individuals learn from their past experiences (Tan, Dalisay, Zhang, Han, & Merchant, 2010). Stereotyping has been a common cause of discrimination since time immemorial. Research suggests the two most common paradigms of stereotyping are the cognitive and affective dimensions (Schneider D. J., 2004). The cognitive component delineates on the fact that stereotyping results from an oversimplification of information that is processed by our mental templates which allows us to skip the specific facts and jump to generalizations (Schneider D. J., 2004). Several theories have been offered to describe the information processing phenomenon leading to stereotyping; the schema, group prototype and exemplar theory (Tan, Dalisay, Zhang, Han, & Merchant, 2010). The notion of discrimination and self-perception is also inter linked where the latter is defined as an awareness of the characteristics that constitute ones self and is used interchangeably with self-knowledge (Riding & Rayner, 2001). Correspondingly, self-concept, a term used interchangeably with self-perception, refers to self-perception in terms of self-evaluation and represents the sum of an individual’s beliefs about his or her own attributes (Riding & Rayner, 2001). The dimensions of a person’s social identity and self-concept derive from knowledge, values, attitudes, sense of belonging and the emotional significance associated with membership in a particular ethnic group (Wylie, 1979). Early theorists considered "the self" to be the main component of human personality and personal adjustment. Furthermore, the self is described as a social product, developing out of interpersonal relationships and striving for consistency (Riding & Rayner, 2001). Thus, Allport believed that individuals’ only real guarantee of personal existence was self-perception (Cosby, 1994). These concepts have formed the basis of discrimination today. According to one of the cases where a healthcare company Cigna was sued on the basis of gender discrimination, Karp (the victim) was subject to sexual discrimination which was eminent from the “glass-ceiling” imposed on her and other females in Cigna. Before moving on, it is important to define the term “glass ceiling” which was coined by the U.S Department of Labor in 1986 when it was discovered that women represented only 2% of top management positions and 5% of corporate board positions (Weiss, 1999). After having controlled for factors such as age, education, experience, skills and parental status, women still received only 81% of the pay of men for similar nature of work (Ashkanasy, Wilderom, & Peterson, 2010) . There has been preferential treatment towards men over the years mainly because some jobs are attributed as “men’s jobs” and some as “women’s job”(Alvarez & Moser, 2010). At other times, women’s role is subordinated to that of men’s because it is assumed that women tend to physically weaker than men and family laws in some societies force women to take on a role secondary to that of men (Alvarez & Moser, 2010). However, the notion of discrimination itself is criticized as merely a ghost feeling by the minority group with ‘victim mentality’ (Metz & Moss, 2004). According to research, discrimination is more often superficial than real. The minority groups often attribute their retarded growth in organizations to external factors, the strongest of which is discrimination. Using attribution and stigma-consciousness theories as their model, researchers have concluded that minority groups are most likely to attribute their poor performance at organizations to sexual discrimination because of their past knowledge of the same (Metz & Moss, 2004). Thus, discrimination can be a myth rather than a reality. This ‘victim mentality’ could in fact hurdle the minority group’s capability to attribute poor performance to internal factors (Metz & Moss, 2004). In other words, such state of mind can lead minority groups to adopt an external locus of control as opposed to an internal one. Stigma consciousness can be explained as a “one’s focus of one’s stereotyped status” as opposed to recognition of one’s stereotyped status. (Pinel, 2004). In the research, Pinel concluded that there stigma consciousness and perceptions of discriminatory behavior are positively co related (Pinel, 2004). People high in stigma consciousness tend to recall more instances of discrimination compared to those who rank low (Pinel, 2004). At the individual level, minority groups who rank high in stigma consciousness expect the behavior of their male equivalents to be discriminatory towards them (Pinel, 2004). Consequently, minority groups bring out negative behavior from their counterparts by behaving critically towards them (Pinel, 2004). Another research was conducted by Pinel where stigma consciousness was ‘situationally’ induced among participants. The results provided evidence to the fact that the levels of stigma consciousness influence the victim’s attributions for performance feedback. It is often true for people to experience the ‘spotlight effect’ and thus experience insecurity as to whether the stereotypes of their group are valid or not (Steele C. , 1998). Subsequently, they try to attribute the response to discrimination in an attempt of self-defense (Steele C. M., 1997). A significant case in the point is the wage differential prevailing between the two genders. Research has proven that some factors such as the amount of work hours, education levels and career ambitions are becoming increasingly similar in the two genders (Howard & Bray, 1988)(Metz & Simon, A focus on gender similarities in work experiences at senior management levels: a study of an Australian bank builds the case, 2008) and these factors have a significant impact on employee progress in organizations (Metz & Tharenou, Women’s career advancement, 2001). Research has also proven that women, on average, are less ambitious as far as their career is concerned than men (Van Vianen & A.H., 2002). But this too can be argued on the grounds that women do not pursue their ambitions simply because they know they’ll not get due representation at top management levels; in other words, their expectations shape their present choices (Bandura, 1982). Furthermore, even if women were ranked as assertive, decisive, intelligent and resilient they would not be promoted to senior positions on the grounds of sexual discrimination as is the case with most women throughout the world (Jackson, Esses, & C.T., 2001).The root cause, therefore, is discrimination. A crucial concept has emerged in this regard, that of diversity management. The term diversity management includes identifying the differences that exist among individuals in terms of race, color, religion, sex and ensuring that their concerns are addressed in the organization (Greene & Kirton, 2009). The concept of diversity management has extended far beyond provision of equal opportunity employment and affirmative action (Burke & Cooper, 2005). It is not just religion, race, sex or color that distinguishes one individual from another but several other factors (Burke & Cooper, 2005). This has been taken into account by the diversity management initiative. Another major case of discrimination has been the discrimination against minorities, particularly the African Americans or the so-called black skins. Most pertinent to the African American phenomenon of racial stereotyping is the fact that stereotyping pertaining to members of the out-group is a directly influenced by direct interaction with members of the out-group (Pettigrew, 1998). However, when such modes of direct communication are absent, the media plays a significant role in shaping these attitudes(Rada, 2000). The cultivation theory sheds light on the fact that the audiences’ perceptions are formed, to a large extent, by the content the media displays regarding these out-groups (Tan, Dalisay, Zhang, Han, & Merchant, 2010). Pettigrew has argued that the fact whether a racial stereotype is positive or negative depends on how the group’s members have evaluated the interaction with the out-group’s members(Pettigrew, 1998). If the interaction is perceived as positive then the racial stereotype is likely to be positive and vice versa. The nature of intrinsic value ascribed to black skin has its genesis in slavery and thus is the foundation for the mental framework of beliefs about African Americans. Many empirical studies indicate that the internalization of European standards of beauty, result in ---many African Americans struggle with inferiority and self hate. Consequently, Jackson et al 2000 maintains that the social construction of whiteness creates a complex racial caste system that negatively affects nonwhites. In fact, it has been expressed by various researchers that the supervisor of the slave owning family showed preferential treatment towards children who belonged to African American backgrounds simply on the basis that they were the offspring of the white slave owner (Schneider & Schneider, 2006). Many empirical studies indicate that the internalization of European standards of beauty is the root of "colorism" or color bias that has plagued the African American community since slavery. Furthermore, Collins notes “historically in the American context, young women with milky white skin, long blond hair and slim figures were deemed to be the most beautiful and therefore the most feminine women” (Lacey, 2011). Internalizing these beauty standards, light skinned African Americans have always had a perceived aesthetic leg up on the dark skinned African Americans. Consequently, the overt color dichotomy privileged the light skinned blacks over the darker skinned blacks and generated intra-racial hatred and discrimination. For example, paper bag tests and comb tests in the early part of the 20th century were used for membership in churches, attendance to black colleges and membership in black Greek organizations (Doane & Bonilla-Silva, 2003). Those who were darker than a paper bag and whose hair could not easily get through a comb were considered inferior (Doane & Bonilla-Silva, 2003). This line of demarcation continues to plague the African American community. Moreover, the legacy of preference toward lighter skinned African Americans continues to be seen in current media programs. From a historical perspective, the process of African American identity exploration begins with deciphering decades of information constructed for them around skin color and/or notions of second class citizenry (Lacey, 2011). This legacy of information is reinforced in the overwhelming media focus on crime, drug use, gang violence, and other forms of anti-social behavior among African-Americans. Consequently, the media continues to foster a distorted and pernicious public perception of African-Americans. Studies indicate that the association of seeing African Americans as criminals reinforces the stigma of stereotypes found that the more people watch either local or network news, the more likely they are to draw on negative stereotypes about blacks (Cosby, 1994). Consequently, media programs help to determine and develop sets of beliefs values and attitudes that serve as a template for perceptions of African Americans. Not surprisingly, research also suggests that African American children often see media images as authentic reflections of African American identity including how they speak, walk and dress (Cosby, 1994). Consequently, internalizing these images may foster feeling of inferiority. This notion was affirmed in a recent study in 2010 which concluded that "White and black children were biased towards lighter skin" (CNN, 2010). This study demonstrated that white children have an overwhelming white bias. It also demonstrated that black children also have a bias toward whites (CNN, 2010). According to the study, white children, as a whole, responded with a high rate of what researchers call “white bias,” identifying the color of their own skin with positive attributes and darker skin with negative attributes (CNN, 2010). Moreover, the study showed that black children, as a whole, have some bias toward whiteness, but far less than that of white children. Research has also proven that African American women, who do not associate beauty with physical appearance initially, do come to associate the two eventually after being exposed to media for too long (Gordon, 2008). More aggressive projections of the African American women have instilled beliefs in this community regarding their sole identity as sex objects (as shown in pop music). To add to the plight, this group is one of the most dominant users of media (Gordon, 2008). Negative appraisal of African American women was recently reflected in a controversial blog entitled “Why Are Black Women Ugly” (Kanazawa, 2011).This study was a social comparison of various races of women to determine the race that was most and least attractive. Consequently, the study concluded those African American women are the least attractive of all (Kanazawa, 2011). Because the study was met with a storm of controversy from irate readers as well as scrutiny from the scientific community, the blog was taken down. However, even after removing the post, the damage was already done as this social comparison reinforces the prevalent notion that black women do not match up to the acceptable standards of beauty and thus, serves as a mechanism for perpetuating self-hatred amongst this community. To conclude, the above cases demonstrate the depth and realm of discrimination since time immemorial. The group who is being discriminated against often finds itself trapped in a vicious circle. However, the notion of discrimination is purely attributed to human psyche and the mere fact that human beings are endowed with schemas and self-perception allows bias to creep in, which ultimately takes the shape of discrimination. Hence, it is difficult to escape this circle simply because many a times this discrimination takes place as a sub-conscious move rather than a purely conscious or deliberate act. References: Alvarez, F. W., & Moser, A. (2010). Targeting Employers for Gender-Based Pay and Promotion Discrimination: The Next Big Thing? Employee Relations Law Journal , 36 (3), 46-53. Ashkanasy, N., Wilderom, C., & Peterson, M. (2010). The Handbook of Organizational Culture and Climate (2nd Edition ed.). California: Sage Publications. Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist , 37, 122–147. Burke, R., & Cooper, C. (2005). 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