The Acute Effects of Corticosteroids on Cognition - Research Paper Example

Does relying on rat testing prove that the chemical BPA can cause human effect? School Many scientific studies use non-human test s for a number of reasons. Testing on humans can be dangerous, particularly if the compound is unknown. Using animals that can be easily bred in a laboratory setting which share many of the characteristics of human physiology can help to give useful clues to the dangers and benefits of using certain compounds on human. Rats are commonly used in scientific studies because they fit all the requirements suggested above. Apart from the animal rights elements of using these animals, there are a number of groups who believe that rats do not share enough similarities with humans to provide proof of the effects that chemicals such as BPA will have on the human body. The following annotated bibliography explores the use of rats in testing with the endocrine disrupter BPA to show that rat testing can be useful in ascertaining the effects of chemicals on the human body. References Ashby, J, and H Tinwell. ‘Uterotrophic Activity of Bisphenol A in the Immature Rat.’ Environmental Health Perspectives 106.11 (1998): 719–720. Print. This original research article explores the effects of BPA on the immature rat uterus. This study has been mentioned within a lot of the secondary sources within this bibliography, and therefore should be included. It was featured in a peer-reviewed journal, which means the results are reliable. It provides the evidence that BPA has a toxic effect on rats, although it does not illustrate whether this is useful when considering the human effect. Diel, Patrick et al. ‘Ability of Xeno- and Phytoestrogens to Modulate Expression of Estrogen-sensitive Genes in Rat Uterus: Estrogenicity Profiles and Uterotropic Activity’. The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 73.1–2 (2000): 1–10. Web. 23 Feb. 2012. This original research article explores the effect of BPA and other xenoestrogens on the rat uterus. Like many of the other studies, it does not provide data from human studies for direct comparison, but conclusions are drawn, which suggests that the results are reliable enough for this journal. Many of the studies focus on the uterine effects, although there are effects on males as well as other physiological effects. Gupta, Ramesh C. Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology. Academic Press, 2011. Print. One of the most prominent effects that have been suggested by animal and human studies are developmental and reproductive. This book is an exploration of the toxic effects of many compounds on the reproductive and early developmental physiological systems. It carries a great deal of information on BPA taken from peer-reviewed sources, which means that it provides reliable information. Much of the information within the book concerns the delay of the onset of puberty and reproductive system disruption in rat models, and making links to the effects seen in humans, which again shows that there are similarities in physiology which can lead to important information without having to use human test subjects. Lupien, Sonia J., and Bruce S. McEwen. ‘The Acute Effects of Corticosteroids on Cognition: Integration of Animal and Human Model Studies’. Brain Research Reviews 24.1 (1997): 1–27. Web. 23 Feb. 2012. This original research does not explore BPA, but does try to illustrate the utility of animal studies and their consequences for human health. This could be used for this essay, despite the lack of specificity in topic, as it suggests that there enough similarity in results in the studies examined here, which can be used to support the thesis point that rat studies should continue. Generalizations from this should be used carefully, as it examines steroids rather than endocrines. Nassar, Ala F., Paul F. Hollenberg, and JoAnn Scatina. Drug Metabolism Handbook: Concepts and Applications. John Wiley and Sons, 2009. Print. This book explores the effects of BPA on the human metabolic system. Although it does not specifically mention rat studies, there is an interesting section about the use of animal studies in ascertaining human effects, which makes this book useful with respect to the topic. This book is used as a medical handbook and therefore is fairly reliable in providing information that can be used in a scientific paper. We should be careful when using this because the effects are more generalized to animal subjects, so it cannot be relied upon when talking specifically about rats, but there is some indication from this book that the results from animal studies can be used reliably, if with caution. Russell Carr et al. ‘Effect of Neonatal Rat Bisphenol a Exposure on Performance in the Morris Water Maze’. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A 66.21 (2003): 2077–2088. Print. This original research article was published in a peer-reviewed journal and thus should be reliable. It explores the possible neurological effects of BPA on the rat specimen, suggesting that science needs to look beyond the reproductive effects. This study does not examine the human effects, although it does explore the possible consequences of the research results for medicine and toxicology. Sakaue, M. et al. ‘Bisphenol-A Affects Spermatogenesis in the Adult Rat Even at a Low Dose’. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH-ENGLISH EDITION- 43.4 (2001): 185–190. Print. This original research provides information regarding the effects of BPA on the male rat, particularly concerning spermatogenesis. This is interesting as many of the other studies focus on reproduction as a whole, or uterine effects. Whilst this paper does not specifically target the possible human effects, the consequences of this research for the human population are considered and this suggests that there is definitely room for rat studies in the scientific community, although results must be used with caution. Searle, Charles E. Chemical Carcinogens. American Chemical Society, 1984. Print. This book explores the effects of BPA concerning carcinogenic properties. This is important because most of the other information is with regards to effects on the reproductive system. Again, many of the effects on rats are the same as those found in the human population, reinforcing the point that there is an importance in using rat studies. The information comes from peer-reviewed journals and therefore should be reliable and informative. Shelby, Michael. Potential Human Reproductive and Development Effects of Bisphenol A. DIANE Publishing, 2010. Print. This book is a general text evaluating the risk of certain chemical compounds on human reproduction, with a clear and concise section relating to BPA. The section on BPA explores studies on rats, mice and gerbils that have been conducted, showing that the effects of BPA in rat studies has affected sperm motility, concentration, motility and the percentage of pregnant female rats after exposure to similar levels to that available to the American population. The relevance of this is that it explores how these studies relate to the effects found in humans, where available, many of which are similar. This suggests that rat testing can be useful in scientific studies, and the research is well-grounded and comes from a variety of peer-reviewed studies, so should be reliable. Talsness et al. ‘The Effects of Low and High Doses of Bisphenol A on the Reproductive System of Female and Male Rat Offspring.’ Congenit Anom 40.Supplement (2000): S94–S107. Print. This original research explores the effects of BPA on male and female reproductive systems, and makes suggestions about the links to the human reproductive system. Many of the effects seem to be similar in humans and rats, reinforcing the point that there is definitely a place for animal research in exploring toxicology and disease prevention. This is important because it explores both the female and male rats, which many of the original research studies do not. These findings may need to be backed up with other original research. Uchida, Kaoru et al. ‘Bisphenol-A Administration During Pregnancy Results in Fetal Exposure in Mice and Monkeys’. Journal of Health Science 48.6 (2002): 579–582. Print. This is an original research paper which could be vital in exploring the usefulness of rat tests where humans are concerned. This test does not compare rats and humans, but it does suggest that there are huge similarities in the toxic effects of BPA on mice and monkeys, which are very similar species. This gives an indication that there are important similarities between mammalian species and therefore the effects of any study should be used with caution but can be used to provide a strong basis for official warnings and disease prevention. Wallace, Kendall Bruce. Molecular Biology of the Toxic Response. Taylor & Francis, 1999. Print. This book explores the toxic response of many compounds from a molecular perspective, which makes it slightly different from some of the other sources here. BPA is covered in some detail, as it is a fairly important toxic compound. It compares the effects of BPA on rat and human studies, as well as comparing these effects to other xenoestrogens. This shows that there is similarity between the effects on humans and the effects on rats, which supports the thesis question mentioned above. The information in this book should be reliable, as the original sources are listed and can be easily accessed. Welshons, Wade V, Susan C Nagel, and Frederick S vom Saal. ‘Large Effects from Small Exposures. III. Endocrine Mechanisms Mediating Effects of Bisphenol A at Levels of Human Exposure’. Endocrinology 147.6 (2006): s56–s69. Web. 23 Feb. 2012. This paper explores how BPA studies using rats can give knowledge about the effects of exposure in humans. This study is one of the few that tries to link the effects, so it is directly relevant to the thesis point above. This again suggests that rat studies are important in finding out information pertinent to human effects. Woodruff, Tracey J., Sarah J. Janssen, and Louis J. Guillette Jr. Environmental Impacts on Reproductive Health and Fertility. Cambridge University Press, 2010. Print. The effects of BPA on the reproductive system are perhaps the most concerning, as many of the other links to medical problems are more tenuous (such as the carcinogenic effects). This book explores the effects of environmental compounds such as BPA on the reproductive systems. The section on BPA looks at the delays in puberty as well as the potential carcinogenic effects of being exposed to BPA at an early age, using rat studies. What makes this most interesting is the effects on humans which are explored by this text are somewhat different from the results of the rat studies, which could give a good counter-example that rat testing might not be infallible. The results are all from peer-reviewed studies so should be reliable for this type of information. Read More