Paternal Influences on Ethical Decision Making of Senior Leaders - Case Study Example

Paternal Influences on Ethical Decision Making of Senior Leaders in the Health Care Industry John Henderson of Phoenix Paternal Influences on Ethical Decision Making of Senior Leaders in the Health Care Industry Introduction: Senior leaders in organizations owe the responsibility to display a high level of ethical and moral values in their conduct, both within the organization and outside of it. However, many instances have come to fore, where they discard this significant aspect. The year 2001 will undoubtedly go down into history as a period fraught with corporate malfeasance. The spectacle of executives being led away in handcuffs may become one of the images that define the corporate misdemeanors of modern times. The corporate scandals in North America including WorldCom, International Olympic Committee, Enron, Tyco, Qwest Communications International, Duke Energy, Bristol-Myers Squibb, etc, as well as the sex scandal in the Catholic church, have resulted in a loss of confidence in the management and leadership of these large corporations and institutions. As a consequence, investors have become unnerved and the jolts have shaken international markets. No wonder that a CBS poll taken in the fall of 2002 finds that 79% of respondents believe questionable business practices are widespread and only fewer than one third thinks that CEOs are honest (Wallington, 2003). These companies have all come to the time light for the wrong reasons. As a result, the role of the CEO in ethical dilemmas has come under increased scrutiny. While ethical lapses occur at all the levels of organizations, senior executives who fail to set high ethical standards and live by them are senior leaders in organizations assume the responsibility to display high ethical and moral values in their conduct both within the organization and outside. However, many instances have come to where they discard this significant aspect subjected to scrutiny and held accountable for the consequences of unethical practices, damaging the interests of employees, shareholders and the society at large. CEOs and other senior leaders such as members of Boards of Directors are expected to provide role models and help develop and entrench the ethical belief system for all members of the organization. However, when these leaders fail in their commitment to stand up to the ethical responsibilities, the negative impact of their ethical transgressions will remain long after the leader has been punished. Background: Instances of unethical conduct by senior leaders, which entail serious repercussions, have prompted the need to identify background factors, socialization practices, or early childhood experiences that may account for such behavior in adulthood. Thus, an interest has developed in understanding various elements that can induce ethical behavior in a person when he becomes a leader, and bind him or her to certain values and principles. On the other hand, it is also imperative to evaluate factors that motivate leaders to indulge in unethical practices, in utter neglect of the values they appeared to possess. In the aftermath of numerous scandals involving major corporations, questions surface as to why senior leaders, despite their commitment to ethics as manifested in the organization’s publicly endorsed code of ethics, violate even the most basic standards of ethical conduct. They raise a legitimate public concern over who is responsible for the ethical development of the corporations and adherence to the demands of accountability, fairness, and corporate social responsibility. In this context various theories on human development (Bowlby, 1982; Piaget &Inhelder, 1972) and moral development (Kohlberg, 1981; Rest 1986) claim that parents, as primary socialization agents, are instrumental in shaping the ethics, values, and morality in their children. [ADDL SOURCES – FURTHER EXPANSION] Ethical leadership has been defined as the “demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making (Brown, Treviño, & Harrison, 2005, p. 120). Furthermore, Treviño, Hartman and Brown (2000) suggest that an ethical leader has to remain both a moral person as well as a moral manager who has to consciously foster moral behavior in his followers by setting clear moral standards and formulating ground rules for moral conduct (Brown & Treviño, 2006). On the other hand, Aronson (2001) Kanungo & Mendoca, (1996) define ethical leadership as the tension between altruistic and egotistic motives and suggest that an ethical leader is driven by a system of accepted beliefs and appropriate judgments instead of self-interest. Many of the attributes associated with ethical leadership such as honesty, fairness, trustworthiness, and integrity are initially developed during a child’s formative years when parents model these behaviors. Leadership scholars have acknowledged this fact and earlier evidences emphasize for quite some time the importance of honesty, integrity, and justice to the success of both leaders and their organization as can be seen from the studies of (Bass & Steidlmeier, (1999), Colquitt, Conlon, Wesson, Porter, & Ng, (2001); (1999). In addition, Bass (1998) argues that leaders “are concerned about doing what is right and honest and are likely to avoid stretching the truth or going beyond the evidence for they want to set an example for followers about the value of adequate communication in maintaining mutual trust of the leaders and their followers. Justice is another value that benefits both leaders and their organizations (Colquitt et al., 2001; Pillai, Schriesheim& Williams, 1999) that contributes to a leader’s moral high road. Furthermore, some scholars (Bass &Steidlmeier, 1999; O’Connor, Mumford, Clifton, & Connelly, 1995) have posited that some leaders possess values and characteristics that make them more vulnerable to social pressures This in turn cause them to engage in unethical behavior. This paper focuses on senior leaders in the health care industry and the potential influences parents and child rearing practices have on adult ethical leadership. It is based on the premise that senior leaders who grew up in families in which parents modeled ethical values such as honesty and integrity, and in which a strong ethical climate prevailed, are better prepared to handle morally intense and challenging situations and less likely to succumb to ethical and moral failures. Problem Statement: The specific problem to be addressed in this paper is to examine whether paternal influences have any significant role in determining the direction of ethical behavior in people when they assume, senior leadership positions. Ethical leadership is critically important because of the impact leaders have on the conduct of followers and other organizational constituencies (Aronson, 2001; Trevino, Brown, & Hartman, 2003). As the recent corporate scandals have shown, lapses in ethics at top levels can prove to be disastrous for organizations. Several studies have demonstrated positive relationships between ethical leadership and commitment, satisfaction with the leader, trust in management, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior (Brown et al., 2005; Den Hartog& De Hoog, 2009; Kalshoven& Den Hartog, 2009), all of which are requisite for effective leadership and organizational performance. A number of individual difference factors have been identified as antecedents of ethical and unethical conduct. For example, recent studies have shown that self-interest, focused on personal gain, is a major contributor to the unethical decisions made by leaders in many firms (Finkelstein, Whithead, & Campbell, 2009, p. 52). Similarly, Machiavellianism, a personality attribute associated with the use of coercion and manipulation, has been negatively related to ethical behavior. Boesche (2002) finds that if one were to judge political actions by consequences, then as Machiavelli suggested, one must be willing sometimes to use political means that are violent, cruel, or commonly thought of as immoral (p. 254). Leaders who use Machiavellian tactics are unlikely to be seen as positive ethical models by their followers. Neuroticisms, or the leader’s tendency to express hostile, fearful, anxious, or impulsive behaviors, is another individual difference factor that also correlates negatively with ethical leadership (Brown &Treviño, 2006). While one can find abundant research on the aspect of ethical leadership, which have been conducted during several years in the past, there exists a conspicuous dearth of studies that explore the influence of parenting styles on ethical standards and behaviors that one displays in adulthood. On the other hand, some internal influences such as personality characteristics have been investigated through various studies in the past, which confirm the impact of child rearing practices in providing the basis for the development of ethical behaviors and standards in children. Have you researched this—I find it hard to believe (INCLUDE RESEARCH) Purpose Statement: The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore the rationale behind why certain leaders eschew ethics while others demonstrate a high level of standard in their conduct. Is this true—or is it to determine if parental influence impacts ethical decisions? Rework this so that you don’t use some form of ethical 4 times in the same sentence. More specifically, this research will focus on the role of socialization agents such as parents in the development of ethical standards of children in adulthood when they occupy senior leadership positions in health care industry. To attain this objective, this research is theoretically grounded (see Chapter 2 of the proposal) in several psychological theories of human development and ethical leadership research. Which ones? Population and Sample: This research envisages interviews with senior leaders from the health industry to elicit information about various aspects of leadership traits as discussed earlier. Questionnaires will be prepared to ascertain specific details about their backgrounds education and motivational factors in life It will also ascertain their perception about th role of their parents in imbibing the values and ethical principles that they still uphold Besides the study will also explore the positions of interviewing a few parents of those in leadership positions in the healthcare organizations to understand how their parenting styles have influenced their children who are in leadership positions However in the context of this study envisaging a large population size will not be practical Thus it will focus on the qualitative aspects of how a parent influences his or her child in attaining ethical behavior once they become leaders in later life Although sample sizes for in-depth qualitative interview studies vary, several authors (e.g., Rubin & Rubin, 2012; Wengraf, 2001) have suggested that 25-40 You are trying to obtain data saturation –don’t commit to 25-40 interviews interviews yield sufficient data for in-depth analyses (e.g., Gubrium, Holstein, Marvasti, & McKinney, 2012; Wengraf, 2001). Face to face interviews with the parents of leaders will be conducted to ascertain the ethical behaviors that were enforced during childhood. Do you have access to 25-40 parents of executives? More specifically, the parents of 30 healthcare CEOs and CFOs within the Eastern part of United States will be asked to participate.How will you find these people? Research participants will be purposively selected based on the premise that each individual will represent an information-rich case with the potential to contribute to the development of patterns and themes thatreflect parental influences on ethical leadership decisions. Importance of the Study: Presently there exists a lack of evidence on the potential role of personal characteristics of ethical leaders, such as a leader’s personality and upbringing Is this a p(De Hoogh&Hartog, 2008). In one of the earlier studies, Baumrind (1971) examined patterns of the effects of parental authority upon the behavior of preschool children using observational procedures. The data emerging from the study indicates that children as they grow old do manifest the nature of their parenting by means of their behavior. In addition, the author reports that authoritative parental control, when compared to authoritarian and permissive parental control is associated with social responsibility in boys, and with high achievement in girls. These studies suggest that authoritative as opposed to authoritarian parents, produce positive outcome in their children. These findings were corroborated by Summers (1995) who find that warm, supportive, nurturing parents who set rational expectation raise children who are mature for their age, socially responsible, friendly, purposive, and achievement-oriented, all characteristics of potential leaders. Values are gained by a child observing from his or her social environment and parents are their primary sources for such interaction Children often initiate parental behavior and they remain guided through the motivation parents provide On the other hand, authoritarian, demanding, physically punitive, and unsympathetic parents give rise to children who are withdrawn, discontented, distrustful, and lacking social responsibility. On the other hand, Avolio (1994) reports that the moral standards Your running head doesn’t make sense—it should be a shorter version of title and your heading is in the wrong font of parents showed low correlations with inspirational and considerate leadership when their children became leaders as adults. Considered together, these studies suggest that a variety of parental behaviors, both positive and negative, influence the development of ethical standards in their children. In this context the study of George Washington is relevant Evidence exists to confirm that his mother has been a dominant factor in his grooming as a person who upholds ethical values [REF] _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ Some parents are able to develop an attachment with their children which transcends the expectations of a normal parent- child relationship that merely confines to the process of caring in terms of providing for their needs Their care encompasses a vision where they set examples through their distinct practices instill a sense of values and ethics which inspire the child significantly to retain such values throughout their lives Thus, theoretically this study will contribute by linking developmental psychology theories such as attachment theory or theories of moral development to manifestation of ethical conduct. This is probably the most important theoretical contribution that enables children to embrace values learned through interaction with their parents in the process of growing up. The potential findings of the research will include a compilation of some parents’ perspectives on the values and how this element becomes a determining factor in influencing their children’s conduct Parents will benefit from this study, as they will be able to gain knowledge of past practices of child raising and the positive potential outcomes for their children. Leaders will also gain knowledge from this study, as they will appreciate the parenting philosophy applied to them by their parents and of equal importance, they may use the structure in the daily operation of their business Child rearing techniques though inherent in parents can also be developed through conscientious efforts Parents irrespective of their age will definitely remember the specific ways and means that they have employed in bringing their children up As such this study will also explore the possibility of including a few parents of senior level executives in healthcare industry to understand the kind of influence they exercised over their children Method: While certain elements of this study need to consider qualitative aspects others require quantitative analysis of data Thus this study will adopt a mixed methodology approach for obtaining and evaluating data Interviews are collaborate efforts, involving interviewers and interviewees engaged in dialogical conversations (Lincoln &Guba, 1994), and are one of the primary means of collecting data in leadership research (Bryman, 2004). While primary data will be collected through interviews with senior level leaders in healthcare industry as well as the parents of such executives where possible secondary data will be obtained from the available literature on the topic A limitation is foreseen in this context that specific data on leadership in healthcare may be hard to come by Therefore the research will primarily focus on leadership traits of some prominent individuals and analyze the motivating factors in their life Thus the study will attempt to establish a link between parental influence in the traits one acquires in the process of growing up and how such traits affect their ethical behavior In-depth interviews will provide rich and detailed information and result in the description of the phenomenon of interest. In this research, an interview protocol will be developed using a semi-structured interview format, one form of in-depth qualitative interviewing, in which the researcher combines open-ended, and close ended questions. CITATION: interview will seek to elicit the relevant factors that may be indicative of the parental influence in modulating the behavior of children and how such factors will determine their ethical conduct when they grow up Besides issues that are central to the research questions will also be explored and will tap into parent’s child rearing philosophies, values, moral awareness and integrity The interview questionnaire comprising 12 to 15 questions, will be designed to engage the parents of the research participants to discuss their views on instilling ethical values and standard in children and reflect on how successful they consider themselves when reflecting on their children as adult leaders. The questions comprising the interview protocol will be guided by the theories undergirding this research The questions will also aim at connecting relevant factors emerging from the literature review with the objective of determining parental influence in ethical behavior of people in leadership positions Probing follow-up questions will be included to encourage research participants to elaborate on their responses to the questions. After securing the research participants’ permission to tape record the interview sessions, the data will be collected in face-to-face sessions, along with field notes that the researcher will complete immediately following individual interviews. A semi-structured interview format will offer flexibility of changing the order of asking the questions and will allow the researcher to be responsive to issues and questions that may arise during the sessions. The researcher will also annex a transcription of all interviews to support the study. The interviewer will solicit the reactions of the interviewees through respondent validation as means of ensuring the credibility and authenticity of their responses and eventually of the study as a whole. A research of this magnitude poses a major challenge of reliability of the interviewees’ statements as many of the views they offer may be biased mediated for impressing or pretentious To rule out the possibility of the final data being influenced by any statements of such nature the researcher will test their genuineness by way of a comparison of such statement with the practical aspects of the participants such as college grades field achievements etc For example if a leader says his parents have been influential during the stage of education this factor can be verified through the college life achievement that this person had in terms of the grades  achievements in sports and other co curricular activities Similarly available data on the track records of his or her profession also will help in determining the validity of a statement Finally, the researcher will engage in critical self-reflection to monitor the extent to which his presuppositions may bias his recordings of participant responses, data analysis, and interpretation by maintaining a research journal. This will also contain an attempt to cross check each information with the other to establish an element of credibility of statements through a process of crosschecking each piece of evidence with the other Review of Literature: Several streams of literature will inform this research including theories of human development with emphasis on the formative years of childhood and adolescence including theories of moral development, paternalistic and ethical leadership. As noted earlier, several studies (i.e., Baumrind, 1971; Summers, 1995) establish linkages between a variety of parental behaviors that may influence ethical or unethical conduct of their children in adulthood. According to research by Baumrind (1971), authoritarian parents try to teach their children to value obedience, respect for authority, tradition, order and work. Such parents believe that their children should accept their ideas about what is right and what is wrong without discussion. In such situations, children’s reactions tend to be distrustful, withdrawn, and discontented. But authoritarian parenting is not the same as authoritative parenting. Authoritative or directive parents use their status, power, and reason to direct and control their children. Such parents are warm and positively encouraging, and develop children who are self-controlled, explorative, and satisfied. A major consideration in this case is that parent who give leeway to their children’s right for their freedom and who exercise control only on significant aspects of life will have a positive impact on their children For example a parent who does not unnecessarily interfere with a child’s activity such as watching a TV program or choosing a book may object to a child’s choice of friend stating valid reasons Such a parenting style offers the child to understand clearly where lines are drawn as well as the need for the existence of the line Similarly parents who share their reflection on other people’s conduct with their children will also have considerable impact on their children Similarly, Hoffman and Hoffman (1970), in their study of Charles de Gaulle, found that conviction, ideology, and the need to restore the glory of France were instilled in him by his early family life just after the defeat of France by the Germans. Finally, Day (1980) compared 58 health care professionals who were promoted and 58 who were not. Those who were promoted were much more likely to express a recurring theme in interviews about having had a family background that emphasized a strong work ethic. Taken together, this body of research suggests that parents, their values, ideologies, and child rearing practices affect a wide range of leadership related behaviors that researchers observed in adulthood. Evidence based on research on parental influences in leadership by Bing (2004) suggests that leaders reflect parental influence both in their thoughts and deeds. Paternalistic leadership relies on values such as personal loyalty to the leader and unquestioning obedience. The traditional father-child relationship on which the term is based was one in which the father authoritatively dictated all the behaviors and life decisions of his children with a moral framework that credited the father with an unquestionable understanding of the needs and best interests of his children. Fathers were presumed to have benevolent intentions toward their children, even as they exercised absolute authority over them (Jackman, 1994). Moat of the families has a patriarchal outlook and children ingest the authority of the father figure and the controlling effect it has over the whole family Thus they will understand the need for obedience to this authority and the positive impact this can have on their life For example when a child behaves properly the dominant male favors the child with encouragement of some sort which the child acknowledges as a recognition for positive behavior Thus he or she becomes motivates to maintain such behavior This attitude will remain throughout in the child and continue when he or she assumes a leadership position Therefore they will motivate their employees in the same manner as the father figure has done to them while establishing their authority clearly On the basis of their research in China, Fahr and Cheng (2000) propose a model of paternalistic leadership that consists of three dimensions: authoritarianism, benevolence and morality. Authoritarianism refers to leader behaviors that assert authority and control and demand unquestioning obedience from subordinates. Under authoritarian leadership, followers comply and abide by the leader’s request without dissent. Benevolence refers to leader behaviors that demonstrate individualized, holistic concerns for followers’ personal and family well-being. In return, subordinates feel grateful and obliged to repay when the situation demands. The third dimension, morality, depicts leader behaviors that demonstrate superior personal virtues, which motivate followers to respect and identify with the leader. On the basis of these dimensions, Fahr and Cheng define paternalistic leadership as “a style that combine strong discipline and authority with fatherly benevolence and moral integrity (2000, p. 94.) bg Paternalistic leadership has been found to have both positive and negative outcomes. For example, Uhl-Bien and Maslyn (2005) refer to paternalistic leadership as “problematic and undesirable (p.1), whereas Pellegrini and Scandura suggest that it is an “effective strategy (p. 268) to emulate positive behavior in the followers Therefore the latter finding supports a premise that paternalistic leadership can motivate employees in an organization to remain loyal to the leadership However the divergent conceptualizations are the result of definitions of paternalism based on varying constructs For example, Uhl-Bien and Maslyn focus on authoritarianism, while Pellegrini & Scandura rely on benevolence as a logic for their findings. Thus as a result of this lack of construct clarity, there is disagreement among authors on the effectiveness of paternalistic leadership (Aycan, 2006). The third body of literature that will inform this research derives from empirical and theoretical work on ethical leadership and ethical decision-making. The pervasiveness of unethical senior leadership within firms is a major contributor to the financial meltdown of the United States economy during the years 2007 and 2008.The latest example of corporate failures are the mortgage giants Fannie Mae and Freddie MAC which is followed by AIG, numerous banks and automobile companies (Levinson, 2009, p. 61) which manifest the malfeasance of a magnitude as occurred in the case of corporate giants such as Enron, Tyco, and World Com. Various instances of unethical conduct have arisen interest concerned in general public and an interest in researchers Much of the research evidence that has accumulated over the past decade in the aftermath of unethical behavior by senior executives and the negative outcomes highlight the significance of ethical behavior for organizations Some of this research signifies a number of characteristics that define ethical leadership at the executive level. Treviño et al., (2000) contend that ethical leadership rests on two factors: a leader’s reputation as an ethical person, and a leader’s reputation as an ethical leader. An ethical person can be perceived as an individual who acts with integrity, honesty, and trustworthiness. Such an individual also acts consistently upholding his or her beliefs; shows concern for other individuals and demonstrate personal morality. Ethical leaders, according to Treviño and her collaborators, develop a reputation for being ethical by working to make values visible in day-to-day operations, the decisions they make, and the resources they allocate. Specifically, ethical leaders act consistently as role-models through ethical behavior, communicate the importance of values in the organization, reward ethical individuals, and implement discipline on followers who act unethically. This research suggests that to set an ethical tone at the top of the organization, leaders need to go beyond being ethical individuals. They must create an outward reputation for being an ethical leader by communicating openly about ethics, rewarding ethical behavior, and clearly disciplining unethical behaviors. Research findings reported by Brown and Mitchell (2010) indicate that ethical leadership is causally related to follower outcomes (p. 586). For example, when negative events such as the collapse of an organization are attributed to the leader, follower support of the leader is likely to decrease. As a result, the foundation for the leader to influence and mobilize followers crumbles and the leader ceases to have the ability to exercise leadership over his or her followers (Meindl, Ehrlich &Dukerich, 1987; Chemers, 2001; Yukl, 2009). As Brown and Mitchell (2010) argue, a senior leader’s decisions do, in fact, affect the lives of his or her followers. Empirical studies have also reported that ethical leadership relates to positive outcomes including to various dimensions of effectiveness (e.g., Brown et al., 2005) as well as follower optimism about their future (de Hoog&Hartog, 2008; Kalshove& Den Hartog, 2009). The studies further have also shown that the selection of leaders who show high integrity and conduct themselves in an ethical manner instead of serving their self-interests or are exploitative of others is critical for organizational effectiveness and survival. Since senior executives have a significant influence on the ethical climate of the organizations they lead, the question of how the foundational principles of leadership ethics that develop early in the context of the family and are carried over into adulthood is of critical importance. Ethical decision-making: The corporate scandals of the early 2000s provide an impetus for research on ethical decision-making. From the studies examined throughout this paper it has also transpired that decision makers should be morally aware of the rightness of their decisions Besides decision frames inform moral awareness. Under the influence of certain ethics frame, decision makers are morally aware. On the other hand, under the influence of other frames (e.g., a business or legal frame), decision makers are not morally aware. Moral awareness occupies a prominent role in rest’s (1986) model of moral decision-making. In much of the empirical research on ethical decision-making, the central importance of reason is reflected in terms of hypotheses about what factors are likely to be important (i.e., factors influencing cognition, such as values and orientations Research Questions: The central research question (CRQ) in this research is: Do parenting styles have any significant influence on ethicl behavior of people in leadership? If so how these styles shape ethical conduct? Do senior leaders in the health care industry internalize parental ethical convictions so that they continue to guide them in their ethical behavior in adulthood? Several sub questions have also been postulated: SQ1: Do effective leaders who have grown up in supportive, benevolent families engage in unethical leadership? If so what are the motivating elements? SQ2: Why does authoritarian parenting style promote the development of unethical leadership? In sum, leaders shape and reinforce an ethical or unethical organizational climate by what they pay attention to, how they react to crises, behave, allocate rewards, and hire and fire employees. Leaders communicate their priorities, values and beliefs through themes emerging on what they focus on, so their personal values powered by their authority set the ethical tone of an organization (Thomas, 2008). Tracing the foundational elements of emergent leadership ethics to parental styles of mothers and fathers of leaders who occupy senior executive position in the health care systems is an important research challenge that this study is designed to address. An evaluation of the background of senior leaders in different contexts such as politics, religion, military, and business organizations has shown that their ethical conduct or unethical conduct depends largely on parental influences (Arborgast, 2008). References This should not be right justified. References Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology, 4(1. Pt.2), 1-103. doi:10.1037/h0030372 Boesche, R. (2002). Moderate Machiavelli? Contrasting The Prince with the Arthashastra of Kautilya. Critical Horizions (Brill Academic Publishers), 3(2), 253-276. doi:10.1163/156851602760586671 Brown, M. E., & Mitchell, M. S. (2010). 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