Stoicism Philosophies - Research Paper Example

St. Augustine & Stoicism Philosophies St. Augustine & Stoicism Philosophies Introduction The paper entails all details about the philosophers in discussion and how they influenced the lives of people not only during their time but also in our lives today. The paper further compares and contrasts the two philosophies and expounds on the teachings of these philosophies. Stoicism is a vast school of Hellenistic philosophy that based in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd century BC. Stoics dwelled majorly in the basic relationship between cosmic determinism and freedom, and the belief of it is virtuous to maintain will. The paper highlights St. Augustine’s philosophy and its influence on our todays lives. However, philosophy has a number of unresolved questions, termed as philosophical problems. Among the problematics, moral knowledge, philosophy of language, questions on philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of mind, questions on philosophy of science and finally Metaphysics. Additionally, the question problem include, does mathematics and science applied by the philosophers apply in today’s world? Did the philosophers deal with the mind problems? The paper also gives the comparisons on the two philosophies and broadly analyses the philosophies. Eventually, a summary of the impacts of the philosophies on today’s world is clearly highlighted. Philosophy is a topic that can never be underestimated. Discussion St. Augustine’s Philosophy Position in philosopher’s words Augustine is a fourth-century philosopher whose ground-breaking philosophy infiltrated Christian doctrines with Neo-Platonism to a wider extent. Broadly, Neoplatonism refers to a school of philosophy based on teachings of Plato and subsequently and subsequently Plotinus. It was the foundation of paganism. Augustine being the founder of western Christianity got lot of recognition not only in Rome but also across the vast Europe1. Moreover, the philosopher got the fame from being an inimitable Catholic theologian and his adverse contributions to Western philosophy. The philosopher was the first ecclesiastical author the whole course of whose development can be clearly traced, as well as the first of whose case researcher can determine the exact period covered by his career till today. Definition of terms Neoplatonism- refers to a school of philosophy based on teachings of Plato and subsequently and subsequently Plotinus. Sceptics- refer to people who habitually doubt beliefs and thought ideas presented as real facts by others, requiring strong argument and base before accepting any belief or claim. Freewill- refers to being generated from the person or to the person’s desire Explanation of the terms and basic position Augustine argued sceptics have no basis for claiming to know that there is no knowledge. Evidently in one of Augustine’s letter, he states, “even if I am mistaken, I am.” Additionally, Augustine was the first philosopher to promote what has come to be called, “the argument by analogy” against solipsism. To a wider extent, solipsism refers to the theory that the self is all that exists or that can be proven to exist. In this context, Augustine argues that, there are bodies’ external to his that behaves like him and appear to be nourished as his is nourished. To add up to that, Augustine hence concluded that these bodies had similar mental life to his. Moreover, Augustine believed that the reason to be a uniquely human cognitive capacity that comprehended deductive truths and logical necessity. Moreover, the philosopher adopted a subjective view on time and said that;” time does not exist in the real world, but does only in the human mind’s apprehension of reality.” Augustine believed that time was not an infinite concept because God created it. To an extent, Augustine spoke of Sceptics. Sceptics refer to people who habitually doubt beliefs and thought ideas presented as real facts by others, requiring strong argument and base before accepting any belief or claim. The philosopher mentioned the sceptics who continuously raised questions about his philosophies and the foundations of the philosophy. Augustine tries to reconcile his belief in free will, especially for the belief that human beings are morally responsible for their actions with the belief that human beings life is predestined in one way or the other. By moral responsibility, the philosopher means that human beings are guided by certain values that they ought to put in practice to ensure that they live a straight life. On the other hand, free will implies by the persons’ choices or decisions. At the start in time, Augustine was generally optimistic about the ability of human beings to behave in a morally upright way but at the end of it all, the philosopher ended up being pessimistic and thought that [the original sin makes human moral behaviour almost impossible, if it were not for the rare and accidental appearance of undeserved Grace of God, humans could not be moral]. Moreover, the philosopher’s discussion of free will is integral to a non-religious discussion regardless of the religious specific language that he used. One can switch the Augustine’s “omnipotent being” and “original sin” explanation for the present day “biology” explanation. The tendency is evident in the modern slogans such as “biology is destiny”. Augustine dwelled much in Manichean and Neoplatonist period. In this frame of mind, Augustine felt that he was ready to be affected by the so-called “Manichean propaganda” which was then actively being carried on in Africa, without facing much opposition. Two things greatly attracted the philosopher to Manichean, and they included; the philosopher felt at liberty to criticize the Scripture, particularly the Old Testament, and they held chastity and self-denial in honour2. The whole thing fits the impression and the moods of the philosopher at that given time. Augustine got through his education during his nineteenth year but went ahead to hold firmly to Manicheanism for nine years during which he worked hard towards converting all his friends, scorned the sacraments of the church and held frequent disputations with the Catholic believers. The Stoics Philosophy Position of the philosopher’s own words Stoicism was one of the most crucial and enduring philosophies to emerge and endure from the Greek and Roman world. The Stoics got recognition for their contributions to moral philosophy and more recently the Stoics were recognized for their work in logical philosophy and grammar as a whole. This person developed one of the most advanced and philosophically captivating theories of mind in the classical world. On the contemporary cognitive science; the stoics rejected the idea that the mind is an incorporeal entity. Instead, they argued that the mind should be something corporeal and something that obeys the laws of physics. Moreover, the Stoics stated that all the mental states and acts were states of the corporeal soul. Corporeal in this content refers to something tangible or physical or rather something to do with the body. The Stoics analysed the functions of the mind at a general base. Cognitive experience was analysed in terms of the brain’s performance. Stoicism is a vast school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno Citium in the early 3rd Century. The Stoics taught that interruptive emotions resulted from errors in judgment and that a sage or a person of “moral growth and intellectual perfection” would not get influenced by such emotions. Sage on a broad extend refers to a wise man or spiritual teacher. A man of dip knowledge and wisdom especially, a teacher venerable for years and of sound judgment and prudence. On a bigger screen, stage refers to a wise stoic philosopher. Definition of the terms Moral growth- focuses on emergence, change and the general understanding of morality from childhood to adulthood Stoics-a person enduring pain without showing the feeling. Member of ancient school of stoicism Virtue- behaviour showing high moral standards Explanation of the terms and basic position Stoics mainly highlighted the active relationships between cosmic activities and human choices and the belief that it is prudent to maintain a will that is in accord with nature. Virtuous refers to having excellent moral character or rather holding so much value. On the other hand will refers to one’s independent faculty of choice and thus the ability to exercise one’s choices, in other words will refers to a general desire or longing or someone’s orders or commands . Because of this, the philosophers presented their philosophy as a lifestyle, and they thought that the best indication of a persons philosophy was not what a person said but how the person behaved. As time passed, stoics dwelled on more and more philosophy. Stoics such as Seneca emphasized that, because ‘the virtue is sufficient for happiness,” a sage was immune to misfortunes. In other words, the stamen refers to stoic calm though the statement does not include the radical ethical. Stoics views that only a sage can be considered truly free and that all moral corruptions are equally vicious. The Stoics, additionally, gave a unified account of the world and a general philosophy. Of these, they emphasized on ethics as the main focus of human knowledge though their logical theories were of more interests to later philosophers. Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions. The philosophy furthermore holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason3. Moreover, Stoics argue that if emotions of an individual take over the individual, the person is likely to behave in a given manner. One of the most crucial aspects of Stoicism involves improving the individual’s ethical and moral well-being. Clearly, they stated “virtues consist in a will that is in agreement with the nature.” This principle also applies to the cases of interpersonal relationships; “to be free from anger, envy and jealousy.” Basing on that statement, the philosophers explained that an individual needs to be free from being jealous of the other people because it may lead to erosion of values. Instead, the individual should learn to co-exist with other people in the society. Additionally, the Stoics stated that a human being should accept the slaves as “equals of other men and that all men alike are products of nature.” From a deterministic perspective, the Stoics also based their arguments. The philosophers thought that in regard to those who lack stoic virtue they had to grasp and put it into practice. According to Cleanthes, he stated “a wicked man is like a dog tied to a cart and compelled to go wherever it goes.” A stoic of virtue in other word would amend his will, suit the world and remain in the words of Epictetus, “Sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy” thus showing a “whole autonomous” individual will and at the same time a universe that is “a rigidly deterministic single whole.” The viewpoint was later described as “classical pantheism. Stoicism became the most popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Roman and Hellenistic world to the points where the words of famous Stoic philosophers rung in the mouths of several people during their time. Moreover, the Stoics propounded that knowledge gets attained through the use of reason. They went ahead to state that the truth can be distinguished from fallacy, even if in the practice only an approximation can be made. The philosophers further stated that the senses constantly received sensations, pulsations that pass from the objects through the senses of the mind, where they leave the impression in the imagination. Phantasma refers to an impression arising from the mind. The mind can judge, approve or reject an impression and observation, enabling it to distinguish a true and valid representation of reality from one that is false. Some impressions get asserted immediately, but others can only be achieving varying degrees of delayed approval, which can be labelled a strong belief or opinion. According to the philosophers, it is only through reason that we achieve clear compression and conviction. The statement broadly referred to as katalepsis. Overview of the position Certain true knowledge achievable by the Stoic sage can be attained only by putting into practice the integration with the expertise of one’s peers and collective human judgment. The philosophers further stated that,” make for yourself a definition or observation of the thing which is reflects to you, so as to see openly of a thing it is in its substance, in its nudity, in its completely and into which it will be resolved” Furthermore according to the Stoics, the universe is material substance, reasoning substance, known as God or nature, which the Stoics put into two classes, the active and the passive. The passive substance is a matter that “lies calmly, a substance available for any use, however, remains unemployed if no one sets in the motion.” The active substance, which can be called fate or universal reason is an intelligent aether or primordial fire, which acts on passive matter. Everything is a subject to the laws of the fate, for the universe acts according to its nature of the passive matter it governs. The soul of people and animals are emanations from this primordial and are likewise subject to fate. The Stoics state, “Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul and observe how all things have references to one perception, the perception of this one living being; and how things and how all things are the cooperating causes of all things that exist” Additionally, the Stoics highlighted the effects of ethics and virtues to an individual’s life. The Stoics are usually misunderstood because the terms they used in the past have different meaning in today’s world. The Stoics did not look to extinguish emotions, but they sought to transform them by a resolute “askesis” that enables a person to develop a clear judgment and inner calm. Logic, reflections, concentration where the methods of such self-discipline. The basis of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself, in wisdom and self-control4. Stoics stressed the rule “Follow where reason leads.” One must, therefore, be free of the passions bearing in mind that the ancient meaning of passion was anguish or suffering. Comparisons and contrasts Similarities/Common themes One of the main similarity between the two philosophies emanates from the will to serve God. Neither Stoicism nor St. Augustine’s philosophy believes that God does the human being’s will like blessing their children but instead human beings do the will of God. Additionally, the Stoics were monotheist believing in one Logos and followed Heraclitus in so doing. The same thing got adopted by Christianity in the later years. According to St. Augustine, there is only one God above, who protects his people. Another crucial idea in the two philosophies is the question of “what is the most important thing in life? What do you serve? What is your God or master?” a similar idea is highlighted in Plato. According to Plato, “when you make the public your master, you will worship the public. When you make money your god, dancing to its tune will be the day to day basis for you” looking for something to serve evidently comes out in the two philosophies. Both philosophies prove that different people serve different masters depending on what please them. Serving the city and home of God before the city of man comes out also as a great similarity in the two philosophies. Christianity developed stoic’s idea of the Cosmopolis-the city of man, and that good person should try and serve Cosmopolis first and then serve their tribe. Additionally, this proved to be a fantastic idea because it cut through the racial and tribal barriers and insisted that all human beings share a divine nature. As Pierre Hadot explored, Christianity also took the stoic’s idea of askesis. The idea of spiritual life involving training of the mind the passion and the body. Christianity took into consideration the idea as it influenced several of their practices. The program was later developed further into various mental programs and even physical programs. Clearly, the idea is still being practiced today by the Orthodox Christianity. The idea of spiritual and theological training is making a comeback in the modern Evangelic world. Differences While Christianity drew, the Stoics idea of Logos came crucial difference. There is a big difference in serving a distant ‘force or providence” and a flesh-and-blood person, born at a particular time and place, wept for us and eventually died for our sins. The relationship with God in Judeo-Christianity is quite different from that of the Stoics. For the Stoics, it is rather like the relationship between the aristocratic English and based on cold ideas of duty and virtue. The relationship with God is more emotional, sensual and more erotic than the Greek philosophy that is the Stoics. Christianity philosophy is more emotional and needy compared to the Stoic philosophy that dwells on moans, groans, wails of anger or despair and finally exultation and despair. There were worries in the traditional Christianity pleading to God to free them from sins and other problems. Additionally, this came out so different from the proud, self-reliant Stoicism. Moreover, St. Augustine’s philosophy stated that Christians believe in grace and faith, whereas the Stoicism philosophy thinks that any help comes from the individual’s reason. Not from God. Conclusion of comparisons The two philosophy are founded on the base that there exist a powerful God above. The powerful force is behind man’s achievement success and listens to the cries of the human beings. However, the Christianity philosophy expounds much on the powerful force compared to the stoicism philosophy Philosophy of choice. S.T Augustine’s philosophy highlights several things that affect the modern Christianity and the world, in general. Position agreed According to this philosopher, people believe in the existence of a powerful God, loving and caring and listen to the people. Idea behind the position Additionally, Christians believe in one God. On the other hand, the Stoics philosophy mainly dwelled on ethics and virtue and the philosophy of mind. The Stoics furthermore believed that God was not the answer to every problem of the human beings. Defending the position St. Augustine’s philosophy forms a pillar in the modern world Christianity (Rettig & John 1993). In the modern world, the Christians believe in an individual made of blood-and-flesh and came to save the world. It is, therefore, obvious that the St. Augustine’s philosophy is more realistic than the Stoic philosophy that dwelled on non-existing “forces.” Criticizing the position chosen St. Augustine’s philosophy on the other hand leaves behind several unanswered questions that keep on ring in the minds of researchers today. The main question comes from the fact that the God that Christians worship is never tangible. The Christians believe in God’s will but have never seen the God they worship. Furthermore, if Jesus the Son of God came to save the individual’s sins, [why is it that crime rates and other sins still keep on increasing in the world]. Reminding reader of the other position Due to such arguments, people tend sometimes to prefer the Stoicism philosophy because the Stoics had some physical gods that they always worshiped. Re-defending the original position The thought that physical God does not exist can be criticized by the fact that God appeared to some people in the Bible, the likes of Moses. Through such a point, stating that physical God does not exist do not add up. Additionally, Jesus came to save human beings from sins. Clearly speaking, the truth of such facts can never get underestimated. The sins that fill the world only erupt because human beings do not take into considerations the morals, values and ethics that guide their lives. St. Augustine’s philosophy plays a major role in the foundation of the modern Christianity, and hence needs attention. Conclusion Philosophy is a topic that can never be underestimated. The paper purposely talks about how philosophy influenced the lives of the people not only during the ancient times but also in the world today. Additionally, the paper compares the two philosophies discussed in the topic and contrasts them too. A wide criticism is also greatly highlighted in the paper, on the philosophy of St. Augustine and that of Stoicism. The main philosophical paper rotates around morality, virtues, ethics and Christianity as a whole. The paper explains the beliefs by the two philosophies of the existence of a powerful “force” above. St. Augustine philosophy tends to be more realistic compared to the Stoicism philosophy. The beliefs by the former philosophy were greatly applying in the modern day Christianity. The philosophy widely shows what the Christians of today does in their quest of having a personal relationship with God. It is the total belief and hope of every philosopher that their message influence the normal lives of the targeted population. These goals can further emanate from the fact that these philosophers emphasize the importance of their writings and challenge those criticizing them. The major objective of philosophy thus lies solely on a positive influence to the society, in general. Bibliography Graver, Margaret. Stoicism & Emotion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007. Harding, Brian. Augustine and Roman Virtue. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2008. Rettig, John W. St. Augustine Tractates on the Gospel of John 28-54. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1993. Sellars, John. Stoicism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. Read More