Descartes and Skepticism - Essay Example

? Descartes and Skepticism al Affiliation This research paper begins by shedding light on the life and works of Rene Descartes, who is famously remembered for his great work on the method of doubting, or in other words, the Cartesian doubting. In the introduction the researcher gives a detailed background on the life of Descartes and outlines some of his major works. The researcher then introduces the method of doubting (Cartesian doubting), defines what it means, and explains how Descartes used this method to refute skepticism by giving examples. The principle of certainty, which Descartes refers to as cogito is also explained. The researcher has also given a detailed explanation on why the project was very important for Rene Descartes to accomplish. Although it seems that the method of doubt has achieved a lot, it seems to raise doubts about everything that could possibly be doubted and this is not the case. Cartesian doubt remains a strong form of skepticism and the only thing Descartes did, was doubting what was possible for him to doubt. Keywords. Cogito, Cartesian Doubting, Skepticism, Descartes Introduction Descartes was born in La Haya, Touraine on the 31st of March 1596 (Wilson, 1983). His parents were Joachim Descartes and Jeanne Broachard. His Father worked in the army and was a noble man. His mother died when he was one year old. Descartes had a brother, Pierre and a sister known as Jeanne. Having been born into a clan of bourgeois, he was educated primarily at the leading Jesuit academy, where he received a grounding foundation in traditional Aristotelian-scholastic philosophy. He later studied law at the University of Poitiers (Wilson, 1983). The chronology of his major works is as follows: 1628-1629: rules for the direction of the mind. 1634: the world scientific system. 1637: discourse on method, optics, geometry and meteorology (samples of which method would accomplish). 1641: meditations concerning first philosophy and objections and replies. 1644: principles of philosophy (concerned with explaining on all phenomena of nature). 1649: the passions of the soul. Concerned with the physiology of emotion and possibility of rational control of the passions (Wilson, 1983). Most the works of Rene Descartes were written in Holland and were philosophical and scientific. He conceived his scientific system as the successor and replacement of the great Aristotelian-scholastic philosophy that had dominated European thoughts for centuries. In his career, he strived to win approval and acceptance for his views, especially among theological authorities. He dedicated the meditations to the theological faculty of the Sorbonne. Descartes died in February 1650 in Stockholm after Queen Christina of Sweden had persuaded him to go and grace her court. Rene Descartes is famously remembered for his Cartesian method that he used to refute skepticism (Wilson, 1983). Cartesian Doubting on Skepticism Skepticism is a doctrine in philosophy that holds that true and absolute knowledge or knowledge of a particular object is uncertain. In other words, that being certain in general or towards a particular object is not possible. The method that he uses to oppose skeptics is the background of his philosophy, which is known as the Cartesian doubting (Wilson, 1983). Descartes method of doubting used syllogism. A syllogism comprises of a major premise, particular premise, which is also known as minor premise and the conclusion. The rules of syllogism hold that if the premises are true the conclusion must be true, and when the premises are false the conclusion is definitely false. For example, Any thinking thing must exist. (Major premise). I think. (Minor premise). I therefore exist. (Conclusion). Before he could begin to construct the stage of his work, Descartes believed that he needed, once in his lifetime to get rid of all his former beliefs, since he was aware that any of them were false. He uses an analogy to explain this argument while at the same time introducing his method. The analogy is as follows; he gives an argument that if one is worried about rotten apples in a barrel, one will be advised to remove all the apples and do a thorough check up to each before placing them back in the barrel, and only if one is certain that the apple he is placing back is sound. This analogy explains the process of certainty which is the main subject in Cartesian doubting. Where one doubts something till he or she is certain about it (Wilson, 1983). Descartes has given arguments as to why he is in continuous doubt. He held that it is possible that human beings are being deceived. He gives an example of the evil demon. He holds that, maybe it is the work of a powerful and malicious evil demon that has constantly manipulated what human beings thinks and understands. When one looks at the objects or the things in the world, what really happens might be the demon producing illusory experience. He also holds that every time two is added to three the result is five. How are we sure that it is not the work of the evil demon in tricking us. He concludes this example by saying that, if one applies the method of Cartesian doubt, the possibility that one's belief is false provides sufficient doubt for one to reject it (Cottingham, 1992) Cartesian doubting involves treating all former beliefs with doubt until there is certainty in them. One should not believe something if he or she is not certain that it is true. The slightest doubt about the truth of something it is enough for it to be rejected. It is the willful suspension of all interpretation of previous beliefs that one held. Descartes saw the method as allowing him to discover some beliefs to serve as the foundation of knowledge. For this knowledge to be worthwhile it was to be certain and it was through the doubting process that we could arrive to this certainty. The concept of certainty required ruling out all doubts that occur in our day to day life, but also some that do not occur to us in the course of our day to day life (Wilson, 1983). This process has been carefully analyzed in his meditations. In the first meditation, Descartes introduces the method and applies it to his former beliefs, beginning with ones acquired using the five senses. For example, he had made mistakes in what he saw from a distance and he gives the example of towers which looked round from a distance. When he came at those towers in close-up, he realized that they were round in shape. But he argued that this would not make him disqualify the senses completely, but will try to avoid what seems to him more serious pitfalls associated with it. This made him realize that he could not trust his five senses. At this stage, Descartes is tempted to believe that absolutely everything cannot be trusted (Wilson, 1983). As he is in the process of doubting everything, in the second mediation his method is proven to be very primitive. Though his method is seen to be primitive, he embarks on rejecting the skeptics’ argument and showing that this would not prevent him from establishing certainty that is it is not possible to be skeptical about everything. Then certainty he discovers became his turning point. The Principle of Certainty (Cogito erg Sum) The Cartesian doubting led Descartes to a principle of certainty. He goes looking for something that is absolute, certain beyond any slightest doubt so as to serve as the basic and the permanent foundation for his knowledge. He dismisses the propositions evidenced by his senses and also the skeptical worries that come from the deceiving gods, dreams and hallucinations that had convinced him that there is nothing one could be certain of. In his quest, he lands on a bedrock certainty capable of withstanding even his worries. That he exists. He refers to this principle of certainty as cogito, although it does not occur in the meditation. He refers to it as the only certainty and explains in simple term as “I think, therefore I am.” In affirming about this, he argues that, one thing he is very sure about and cannot be tricked is his own existence. Any thought that any thinker has about something is an indication he or she exists. There cannot be a thought without the thinker. He held to this argument so as to discredit the skeptics in their own game, who held that one could not be certain about anything (Wilson, 1983). Descartes continuous that “I” showed existence, but it was not to be identified with the body. This makes him confused on whether the body exists in the form he thinks it does. Now that he is certain that he exist because he thinks, he doubts, wills, and is still confused about who he is. Is he a thing that wills, thinks doubts and imagines? To solve this, he appeals to an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God. The most he can essentially show from cogito is that he is essentially a thinking thing. For him to understand this, he introduces the Cartesian dualism where he is able to make a sharp separating between the mind and the body. Importance of Cartesian Doubting to Descartes. As seen earlier, Cartesian doubting involved treating all former beliefs as they were false. Descartes was aware that his method was very important to a new genuinely scientific paradigm that lay in unlocking new areas of research and discoveries, and withholding it from the public would be against the law that makes it our duty to help in the general welfare of all human beings in day to day life. Descartes gives the underlying motive for bringing in questions of his past opinions and belief as the desire to establish something firm and enduring in the sciences. He held that science must be established on a base of certainty. He has discovered that some belief makes sure that only true opinions will be included among the foundations to be provided for his science. Descartes aims at bringing about a radical and systematic revision in the contemporary world. He held that natural sciences needed a method that ensured certainty for them to have worthwhile knowledge (Wilson, 1983). Descartes aimed at accomplishing this doubting method so that he could able to discover the fundamental principles that are the foundations of any philosophy according to him. He aims at establishing the following principles; God is a perfect being and that he exists (Wilson, 1983). This was the basis of his metaphysics. We ought to assent only to what we understand clearly and distinctly certain about (Wilson, 1983). Human sense experience allows us to know only the material things. And that they exist and affect our organs which was the basis of his epistemology (Wilson, 1983). Descartes claims that certainty about his thought and existence is very central to his general program of epistemology. He embarks on answering skepticism, and to do this he must have a foundation that is characterized with certainty. He holds the view that all knowledge should begin with some beliefs that are certain, and have no slightest doubts in as much as some can never be certain. He thus embarks on accomplishing his project of Cartesian doubting, because he sees it as very important to support the rest of our knowledge about the world (Cottingham, 1992) Descartes also sees his project as very important to accomplish, because he claims that the certainty of his thoughts and his own existence plays an important role in his metaphysics. He argues that the proposition that “I think, therefore I am” is not enough to understand where human beings might have originated from. He continues his argument by saying that; he might have come from a pen which has no bodily elements. Thus he must accomplish this project for him to be able to realize that God exists, who makes him what he is, and also makes him think. Through this method, he is able to derive the existence of God from his own existence (Cottingham, 1992). In conclusion, although it seems that the method of doubt has achieved a lot, it seems to raise doubts about everything that could possibly be doubted, and this is not the case. Cartesian doubt remains a strong form of skepticism and the only thing Descartes did, was doubting what was possible for him to doubt. He saw stronger forms of skepticism might have undermined his power (Cottingham, 1992). Reference List Cottingham, J. (1992). The Cambridge Companion to Descartes. Cambridge. Wilson, M.D. Wilson, Margaret D. (1978). Descartes. London: Routledge. Read More