Industrial Revolution: Factors Contributed towards Western Europe - Term Paper Example

"WESTERN EUROPE WAS FIRST TO INDUSTRIALIZE BECAUSE OF LUCK: COAL AND COLONIES WERE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE WEST AND THE REST OF THE WORLD." DISCUSS. The Industrial Revolution or the application of power-driven machinery to manufacturing began in remote times. But ever since the beginning of agriculture some eight to ten thousand years ago, the industrial revolution of the eighteenth century Europe was the most influential transformation of human culture. During this period the whole of Western Europe began to industrialize rapidly. No one could have known that this revolution would have a deep impact not only on the soul and thoughts of individuals, but also on social structure, human labor and family structure. Though it is hard to pinpoint, but most historians agree that the Industrialization basically originated in England with a series of social and technological innovations. But the oldest disagreement among historians is how the ordinary people were affected by it. While Landes (1987), seems to approve of the Industrial Revolution by stressing its positive consequences; such as the increased political equality and improvement in the material conditions. It was between 1760 and 1860, that the progress in technology and education; and an increasing capital stock; transformed England and the rest of Western Europe into the workshop of the world. This essay will try to look into the different factors that contributed towards Western Europe to industrialize first, in comparison to the rest of the world. The industrial revolution was driven not only by technology but also by profound social changes. Europe rapidly moved from primarily a rural and agricultural economy to an urban and capitalist economy and from a household, family based economy to an industry based economy. This required the need to rethink social obligations and the structure of the family. Abandoning the family economy was the most dramatic change the Western Europe had ever undergone, and Europeans still seem to be struggling with these changes. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the European economy had become a global economy. The Western European, manufacture and trade stretched to every continent except Antarctica. Why the other nations did not initially join this revolution is based on multiple factors. Causes of Occurrence in Western Europe A question that really interests economic historians is that why did the eighteenth century industrial revolution start in Europe rather than in any other part of the world, like France and China or India. Though numerous factors like ecology, government and culture have been suggested but some historian argue that as China and Europe were similar in the 1700s, the crucial difference which resulted in the Industrial Revolution in Europe were the sources of coal and other raw material near the manufacturing centers. This enabled the ordinary people to find increased employment opportunities in the new factories and mills (Hartwell, 1971). Moreover, it also allowed Europe to economically expand in a way China could not. Though some 20th century historians argue that the process of social and economic change took place gradually, therefore, the term revolution is not a true description of what took place (Berg & Hudson, 1992). Climatic and Geographical Factors The geographical factor has played a vital role in Western European industrialization. The countries situated in tropical and semi-tropical zones like China and India, have a severe handicap because of the climatic and weather patterns of these areas. Hot climates are mainly responsible for the spread of viral and other incapacitating diseases (Landes, 1998). Moreover, these areas are either dominated by deserts or the weather there is such, that it suffers from drought or torrential downpours that are detrimental for farming. To completely overcome these natural handicaps is undoubtedly a major problem which drains a lot of government resources. Europe on the other hand too; had geographical limitations. The contrast between the geographical difference between the temperate regions and Europe were the physical features and terrains which made communication and overland transportation much difficult, especially when no single nation could conquer the whole of Europe. Moreover, the natural resources and minerals like coal and iron etc. were great contributors in European industrialization. The West with the development of iron tools, were able to clear the great hardwood forests which restricted suitable farming areas and improve agriculture. But according to Bradshaw (1989), during the Industrial revolution the humans used electricity, steam, water and other sources of power to exploit and gain more benefits. While little or no attention was paid to the land being damaged, whether by mining or industrialization. Agricultural Progress Agricultural development in Western Europe had a great impact on industrialization. Federico (2005) believes that though somehow neglected, agriculture has been an outstanding success story during the last two centuries. It has fed an increasing variety of products at falling prices to an ever growing population and has released a growing number of workers to the rest of the economy. The era known as the period of industrialization reformed not only agriculture but also metal manufacturing, textile, transportation and economic policies as well as social structure in Europe. Progress in the field of agriculture began with the modernization of the rural institution which involved the enclosure of open fields, and a shift from a large scale peasant farming to capitalizing farming. This generated a rise in agricultural productivity which in turn helped industrial development. Between 1750 and 1850, China's population increased drastically and the food prices soared high. Western Europe with its technological advances by then had become the industrial centre of the world. Heading the industrial nations was Great Britain; who was in the process of building and empire and finding new sources of raw material for its industry. Advancement in agricultural practices and techniques resulted in an increased supply not only of food, but also of raw materials for the textile industry. The production of cotton and wool for the manufacture of cloth increased in each successive year as did the yield of food crops. This brought changes in the industrial organization; and new technologies improved and increased production, profit and efficiency. According to Madison (2001), during the first millennium the world population increased by one-sixth only, and per capita income did not increase at all. But during the second millennium the population grew 22-fold, per capita income 13-fold and GDP nearly 300-fold. The changes that occurred in agriculture made it possible to provide enough food to sustain an adequate work force in Europe as well as paving the way for its economic and industrial expansion. Political and Religious Aspects The Western Europe with its semi-autonomous commercial cites within the variety of nations gave its people the right to vote. With the different political powers existing within the Western European individual states, commercial interests played an important role in the struggle for political power. This resulted in the concepts of individual rights and contracts. The Europeans developed the capacity to compete and cooperate in knowledge sharing for advancement. Whereas, some totalitarian and authoritarian governments like China; often generated little loyalty and this discouraged the domestic skills and intellect which proved greatly damaging for industrialization. Moreover, religion in some societies persisted on elevating authority which cramped initiative and discouraged widespread experimentation. Magic and superstition also had quite a stronghold on the lives of the common man especially, in places like India. As a result of such beliefs, the intellectual grown; generation and implementation of new and innovative ideas was also not welcome. 'Why was England First:' According to Crafts (1977) the comparative approach to the two problems posed by the Industrial Revolution are why the breakthrough took place in Western Europe, and within Europe, where and when did it occur. It provides valuable insight into the economical growth from the general perspective and a better understanding of England's economic growth from the aspect of the Industrial Revolution. When industrialization began in Britain before 1789, there were isolated areas on the continent such as the French Le Creusot works that could have served as the base for a similar growth (Hobsbawm, 1964). While Crouzet (1967) believes that by comparing the eighteenth century English economy with France as the leading continental power of the time, can clarify factors peculiar to England's Industrial Revolution. In the eighteenth century, industrialization began in Britain for a number of reasons although it was neither the richest nor the most populous country in Western Europe. But nevertheless, it possessed virtually at all levels of society, a private sector which was not only hard-working, risk taking and inventive but which also enjoyed a strong support of the government. As industrialization could not begin and grow without individual business owners ready to take a chance on something new, the British kept a close tie between creative governmental support and private initiative throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Along with the thriving cotton industry, England had natural resources like coal, lead, copper etc, and water power in South Wales, North of England and English Midlands which helped to expand industry. By the 1750's industrialization resulted in mass production and capitalism and made things which were easily affordable by the less wealthy. Land reforms and property rights during the 18th century enclosed large private farms which were less labour intensive, but had greater and efficient productivity. Britain with its liberal trade policy as compared with stronger monarchies like Russia and China were able to use new emerging scientific and technological developments effectively. With better road and transport system in contrast to state run projects in France, commerce and mercantilism thrived there. With every war fought, England acquired new territories and thus had complete trade monopoly with North American colonies and later got control over the Indian and South American trade. Colonization and Trade Discovering new places and colonization generated great wealth for Europe. Feudalism was abolished and the merchants from the middle classes gained high respect in the European society. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Europe enjoyed the advantages of overseas explorations in the form of colonies which helped Western Europe in getting cheap labour in the form of slaves, who were imported from Africa to work the cotton and sugar plantation and to dig gold. But according to North (1976), throughout history and in the present world, the economic growth has been periodic because of the player's intentions not being the well being of society, or the player's comprehension being deviated from purpose. Colonization and trade increased; and expansion of capitalism encompassed every aspect of economic life. Commerce and trade created more resources for raw material and new markets were opened. Wealth in the form of silver and gold began pouring into Europe from new discoveries in the Americas which spurred the production and prices of goods. Colonies proved important not only as a source of raw material for the factories but also as outlets for the finished products. According to Pomeranz (2000), the divergence of 19th century Europe from the Old World owes much; to fortunate location of coal - a substitution for timber, allowing growth in energy intensive industries which helped Western Europe to grow along resource intensive and labour saving paths. Overseas Exploration and Political Stability With the rise of capitalism during the mid 16th century opened avenues for overseas investment opportunities. During this period the most important trade routes were through the Atlantic and not the Mediterranean. So, notable advances of the trade movement began to be made in France, the Netherlands and England. While Spain and Portugal were the first to take lead in overseas exploration. By the mid 17th century the strong monarchies such as England, France, Switzerland, Holland and the Scandinavian countries were politically better as unified states. Though Portugal and Spain too were unified; but were gradually declining and losing wealth due to their colonial empires abroad. Just before World War I, Russia had also become one of the top five producers of coal, steel, oil, iron, railroads and textiles, but came into imperial conflict with England, France and later Germany in its expansion southwards. Moreover, the West developed democratic politics by establishing a stable and secure system of property rights for private citizens; which was a necessary condition for economic growth. Another important aspect was that establishing such rights depended on the creation of representative democracy. Energy Sources Minerals such as coal, iron, steel were a natural asset for Western Europe. Coal burns better and more effectively than wood and is very cheap. The Western Europe industrialized a little later that England though many industries used the technology which was initially developed in Britain. But the availability of mineral resources were a great natural blessing for England and most of the other Western European countries. Therefore, in the beginning; only a few aspects of the European technology could be adopted and made use of by the rest of the world. The United States like Britain used water power in order to run the factories but industrialization was limited to New England and the Northeastern United States which had fast moving rivers. It was only around 1860 that steam powered, rather than water powered manufacturing which helped industrialization to spread across the nation. Better means of transportation especially the railways led to the cheap mass production of steel around 1850. This period is also said to characterize the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution which gradually grew to include petroleum refining and distribution, chemical industries and the electrical industries. While the automotive industries in the 20th century marked the transition of technological leadership from England to Germany and the United States. Similarly, Germany thrived because of steel and iron production, textile manufacturing and steam engines and railways and soon captured a world market for its saleable and cheap quality industrial goods. By 1870s, as a leader in scientific research, Germany made developments in electricity and chemistry and the invention of the dynamo revolutionized electrical energy to construct power stations which served towns and cities. Mass Migration and Nationalism Due to increase in Europe's population in the 19th century, the landless farmers no longer had work except the harvest season, so many people moved around the cities and some; to other countries in search of work. Crouzet's (2001) concept of European economy is that it is not geographically bound by fixed borders but rather grows and contracts - in spatial, in traditional economic terms as well as geographical terms. With more workers and less job opportunities for peasants and landless farmers so in order to prevent social unrest, the European Governments stimulated migration of people towards colonies and former colonies. Many loabourers were needed there after the abolition of slavery around the middle of 19th century and consequently, a large number of people migrated to America and other overseas areas. The English were happy as many Irish migrated to America, rather than England. The migration of people reached its height between 1850 and 1914 and people from all over Europe and from other continents to the new industry centres in England, Germany and France. After the French Revolution in 1789, the liberal revolution gave every citizen the right to move wherever and whenever he liked. Religious tolerance grew and the idea of one nationality in one country developed. By the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century the notion of nationalism continued to grow. But as there were mixed nationalities in many countries due to migration therefore, the idea of an own state for every nationality did not work out everywhere. This caused much movement of people towards their own country; but such groups were not welcome anywhere. Knowledge Sharing A major factor for the Western Industrialization was knowledge sharing. With better means of transportation, it was possible to travel to distant places in less time. In Pierce's (2003) view, one of the challenges in terms of economic history is to conceptualize and explore new connections, and imagine new frameworks between traditionally understood economies. Therefore, Europe gave preference to sharing and imparting technological and empirical knowledge and encouraged competence and merit. As new endeavours and projects required money and risk taking; the European institutions provided security for such projects. The Western societies shared the curiosity and the ability to take initiative like England as in the case of Germany, United States, Australia and Japan. They had an open mind to new ideas which made it possible for new inventions and this information was spread through several means. Most commonly this knowledge was shared by either a trained worker moving to work for another employer or by someone making a study tour to gather information. Even before the Industrial Revolution, all European countries along with America were carrying out study tours. While some nations like France and Sweden made it a state policy to train technicians or civil servants. Moreover, some individual manufacturers also followed this practice in countries like America and Britain, in order to improve their own method and techniques of working. The sharing of knowledge was also carried out in the form of technological and scientific publications. Conclusion Thus we conclude from the above discussion that luck did favour Western Europe by giving it an edge in the form of natural resources like coal and iron etc. which made industrialization possible for it sooner, as compared to the rest of the world. Another advantage Europe had were its colonies spread far and wide which enabled them to get riches like gold and silver and above all, cheap labour in the form of slaves. Moreover, Western Europe was also more open to change and innovation which enhanced their economy by utilizing new technological and scientific inventions, which many other countries were less willing to adopt. Industrialization that took place during the end of the 19th and the early years of the 20th century also reformed social and government policies. Art and culture flourished and technological and scientific inventions changed the social and home life. The face of nations has changed because of the Industrialization by giving rise to urban centers which require vast municipal services and has created interdependent and specialized economic life. ------------------------------------------------------------- BIBLIOGRAPHY Berg, Maxine & Hudson, Pat. (Feb. 1992). Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution. Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 45, No. 1. pp. 24-50. Bradshaw, A. D. (Dec. 1989). Wasteland Management and Restoration in Western Europe. The Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 26. No. 3. pp. 775-786. Chambers, J. D. (1968). The Workshop of the World. London: Oxford University Press. Crafts, N. F. R., Terence C. Mills. Endogenous Innovation, Trend Growth and the British Industrial Revolution: Reply to Greasley and Oxley. The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Dec., 1997) pp. 950-956 Crouzet, Francis. (1967). England and France in the Eighteenth Century: A Comparative Analysis of Two Economic Growths, in R. M. 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