Mens Understanding Of Masculinity - Research Paper Example

? An Investigation into Men’s Understanding of Masculinity using Foucauldian Dis Analysis. Gender is psychological phenomena rather than physical essence, which is expressed mainly by behaviour. In psychological terms, gender can be defined as those characteristics and elements that are expected of a man and a woman in a community, society or culture. Gender is seen as a key individual difference and research in this area can be used to make generalised theories. The Foucauldian discourse analysis is a tool that can be used to investigate these aspects and theories that influence the development of gender in the society. According to social gender constructionist approaches, gender is seen as a fluid concept in specific cultural and historical contexts. With this in mind, this research aims at exploring men’s understanding of masculinity and their approach to life regarding their notions on masculinity. A better understanding of these issues could help develop interventions aimed at improving men’s lifestyle, behaviour and their emotional lives. Based on this title, ‘An investigation into men’s understanding of masculinity using Foucauldian discourse analysis’, the research question would be ‘What is men’s understanding of masculinity and how do they relate this to their lifestyle, behaviour and emotional lives?’. Key words: Gender, masculinity and Foucauldian discourse analysis Introduction Gender is a concept that was developed through time in an effort to create a power class in society because of the differences between the two classes (Courtney, 2000). This was achieved by construction of behavioural patterns that were set up to characterize each gender group. This partition in roles and behaviour made possible for one group to assume the more assertive and powerful position in society at the expense of the other gender group. With reference to this, masculinity is also an ideal that was developed in society and was handed down from one generation to another through inheritable behavioural conditioning. Masculinity has been used as the focal point of championing the male genders assertion to power. Masculinity is seen as the core component of the male gender, and it is a protected ideal among the male gender. The concept of masculinity is subject to modifications by time and lifestyle changes. This has led to different perceptions about masculinity as a concept because of the way the concept was transferred from one generation to another. When studying gender psychology there are two approaches that include mainstream approaches informed on essentialism. The other one being social constructionist approaches towards gender. In essentialism, all persons are said to have a discoverable and definable nature (Burr 2003). In essentialism, researchers measure the differences between the genders for the difference between degrees of assertiveness between two groups. In social constructionist approaches, it is assumed that knowledge is socially constructed through human meaning making-through people’s efforts to make sense of it and navigate their selves within it (Rogers & Rogers, 2001). The latter approach can be said to be anti-essentialist in the sense that there is no determined nature to the world or people because of the dynamic nature of life (Burr, 2003). Keeping these approaches in focus, this research aims at analysing masculinity through the psychological perspectives of gender. According to Beynon, masculinity is a diverse concept and can be divided to represent various aspects (White & Howard, 2008). From a psychological perspective, the expression of masculinity is an essential component required in identifying with the male gender. It is expressed in the body language, tone of voice and general outward appearance. The physical attributes of the male gender can be attributed to nature. This change is due to erosion of the masculinity concept by time (White & Howard, 2008). Traditionally, masculinity was linked to reckless behaviour, lack of emotional openness and participation in extreme sports or exercises and overworking. All of these were attempts to portray masculinity as more powerful concept, which was a result of social constructionism. There has been an emerging trend where more attributes are being incorporated into this concept of masculinity. Qualities such as emotions, which were earlier, associated with the female gender, are being appreciated by the masculinity concept. There have also been changes to what constitutes masculine strength, which is different from what was perceived as core components of the concept. In this regard, there have been changes in the way that expression of masculinity is achieved in society in general. Methodology and Data Collection When collecting qualitative data, one of the most often employed instrument in interviews. The process of conducting an interview involves a purposeful discussion between two or more people. According to Potter & Hepburn and Willig, an interview helps gather valid data and is structured, unstructured or semi-structured. In the course of this study, semi-structured interviews have been employed, which means that though the researcher had a sketch of questions to ask there was room kept for new and unanticipated information. A semi-structured interview is primarily informal (Potter & Hepburn, 2005). The employment of semi-structured interviews allowed the researcher to explore the subject matter at hand, as much as possible. Using this approach; therefore, a set of research interviews questions guidelines were designed. The interview questions aimed at arriving at the main research question although not all of them were eventually used during the interviews. One of the crucial elements in any data collection process is to be wary of its ethical considerations. For this purpose, the researcher first sought the consent of the participants and ensured them that their private information, identification and other private details will remain undisclosed. The names used in this research for the participants are thus unreal. An advantage of this consideration was that the participants became more relaxed and thus, addressed the issues openly and without any pretence. The purpose of the study was explained to the subjects, and they were assured that their participation was voluntary. And as such, they could withdraw at any point in time. This practice is in accordance with the recommendation of (Potter & Hepburn, 2005) that the consent of the participants is mandatory in a research process. In this research, four male participants took part in semi-structured interviews governed by a male researcher. The sampling criterion was that all the participants were more than 35 years old and had at least one child. This was to ensure that they could reflect on their lives as younger men and now as middle-aged men. Factors such as socio-economic background, religion, culture etc. were disregarded. Foucauldian Discourse Analysis is a specifically designed critical approach to researching and evaluating social and psychological aspects of things in broader contexts. The researcher assesses chunks of discourses in this method rather than an imposition of a single dimension theoretical framework. Michel Foucault, a French historian and post-structuralist, developed and used this method to reveal power relations claimed that discourses consist of several knowledge bodies that systematically establish and reproduce specific social institutions (Willig, 2008). According to Willig (2008), Foucault aimed at revealing how specific discourses sustained social meaning networks, which control and moderate people in various natural ways. Foucault made discourse analysis a famous analytical method by comparing textual sources and powerful social institutions, and raising concerns about subordination and domination linked with intellectual traditions such as Marxism and Feminism. Psychological discourse analytic practices generally relate to verbal talk that may have come from sources such as interview data but FDA is not limited to that and can be performed wherever morphological meaning exists and is transferred through a communication or textual medium (Willig, 2008). Analysis An analysis was made on the data collected from the participants by first identifying key themes that were relevant to the scope of the study, which was garnered from the participants understanding of masculinity and how they related this to their lifestyle, behaviour and emotional lives. Three key themes were identified, and they include the idea that males are rough and tough. All these themes are going to be analysed in this section of the paper and their substance of truth determined based on the evidence garnered from the respondents. With regard to the first theme that states that to be a manly is to be rough and tough, there are several instances that this is illustrated from the interview with the respondent going by the name Bruce from Australia. Bruce starts by saying that according to him, he believes that what constitutes a man in part influenced by the male biological make up and the other part by society. “Yeah I think so. It’s not just a testosterone word. We are driven by our hormones and this is an important part of being a man but we also live up to the expectations that are set by those around us” (Burr, 2003). He extrapolates on this by saying that the biggest role comes from society especially from those a person looks up to as their role model. A person is then made to live up to their expectations of self, which are influenced into being by the society (Burr, 2003). According to Bruce, the society’s expectations of what constitutes a man are what people strive to achieve. According to Silverman, part of this society that plays a leading role in shaping manliness comes from an individual’s immediate family and in this case the father. “Yeah. I suppose there were certain expectations. I mean everyone played sport, for example, so being Australian that’s very important to us” (Burr, 2003). His father stressed that masculinity was augured to physical strength. His father stressing that he should excel in sports, and he should help in the family’s farming activities exemplifies this. According to Bruce, when he was young, the notion that to be a man was to be rough and tough was readily accepted as the societal norm and a truth. This discourse is presented as normal for the speaker when he gives examples of activities he was involved in as a young adult. “Being good at sport was just something that happened naturally for me. If it wasn’t natural for you then you were in trouble. If you struggled in your sport you had to work hard to improve otherwise you were not accepted by the other guys” (Burr, 2003). They associated risky behaviour as the true expression of masculinity, and it was an accepted norm in their society for boys to express themselves in this manner. This is in contrast to what girls were expected to do in order to express their perceived gender. It was unheard of for a girl in their society to be found riding a motorcycle because it was deemed as masculine behaviour. There is no law prohibiting women to ride motorcycles but the society has developed a system that dictates behavioural patterns based on gender. In Bruce’s society, masculinity has been made to take the position of power in the fabric of society, which explains his belief that a man should be head of his family. As a father, Bruce is seen to have gained additional insights on what is required to be a man. This can be seen as a shift in the core principles about masculinity that he had adopted from his father because being called father gives him a different perspective of life (Courtney, 2000). This is shown when he says that life has more meaning that there are people who are looking up to him for survival. This changes his attitude towards life, and he pays close attention to his health than he used to do in the past. Bruce comes to appreciate the role played by his wife because he realizes that he does not have ultimate control and power over some essential faculties. These faculties are components of masculinity he deems as necessary additions that are lacking to offer strength to his already established notion of the masculinity concept. Bruce is of the position that his wife’s role in his family is equally significant for the proper functioning of the family unit. This is seen as a move away from the earlier supposition that the roles played by women in the family were only second to those played by men. “Yeah, which are things like being fair, being compassionate, being understanding, being empathetic. They’re the sort of people that I find worth admiring. They strike the balance between emotional and physical strength…..Yeah, I think we’re all in those characteristics. In the community, I grew up in these characteristics were seen as feminine and to show your emotions meant that you were not real man, you were acting like a woman. I can still see this today to a certain extent” (Courtney, 2000). It is evident that being rough and tough was the best way to express manliness, but as it is illustrated from Brice’s experiences in life, that perception has changed albeit on his part. This is seen to support Smith’s notion that these emotional traits are seen as core elements of strengthening the masculinity concept. This further strengthens Foucauldian theory that life realities are social constructs that we have control over and ability to modify to suit our needs. The theme that traditional gender socialization and social norms models encourage men to risk the well being of their health is supported by the discourse that, in Bruce’s society, it was an acceptable norm. In Bruce’s society, it was ethically accepted, for men, to engage in risky behaviour that in some instances put their lives in danger, for example, skydiving. Bruce says that what entailed masculinity was engaging in activities that gave them an adrenaline rush without caring about the consequences. They did not mind what their actions entailed on their health as long as it gave them the thrill. “I didn’t want to face up to the fact that I was ill, and this illness could restrict me from doing what I need to do in terms of work and looking after my family. The illness was a threat to my ability to be a man so, I pushed it to one side and hid it from my family and the doctor” (Courtney, 2000). The perceptions of masculinity that Bruce had, made him ignore his heart problems because his concept of manliness did not allow him to show signs of weakness. There is different a different supposition that is displayed by the Participant David. “I always consider it more important for a woman…I think that it’s very easy for women to feel bad about themselves if they put on a bit of extra weight they’re very self-conscious in that way and I think physical exercise” (Courtney, 2000). He says that it is more significant for women to able to engage in a physical activity of choice, failure to which, they would be more psychologically affected by this failure. This goes to illustrate that the concept of masculinity pays little attention to the importance of health in a man’s life. According to Beynon, masculinity seems to show health as a secondary concern about what is seen as vital, for men, in the society. There are health practices that have been regarded as feminine, by all he respondents to, and others as masculine, which goes to show that the concept of manliness can hinder someone from pursuing health benefits because they are deemed feminine (Beynon, 2002). From Martin’s responses, it is made clear that he deems some health pursuits purely meant for men, and he goes on to say that he belongs to a men’s only sport club. This shows the prejudice created by his masculinity concept that women are not fit to engage in some health pursuits. This is contrast, David’s position that his perception of masculinity allows for men and women to have equal stature in society. This a good example of the direction in which, socially constructed realities are taking in regards to what is socially acceptable. The theme that men take their physiology for granted illustrated the way men in all the discourses defend their physical well-being. This is because this a core component around which the concept of masculinity is constructed. In fact, physiology is the most significant aspect of manliness that is addressed by a majority of men in society. Masculinity seeks to perfect the physiology associated with the male gender because it around the physiology that the male gender gets its identity (Gough, 2001). “If I can’t do my sport I don’t feel right, and the injury really bothered me because it stopped me from training for a while” (Gough, 2001). This supports Banister’s theory that, without the male physiology, it would be a difficult task to draw onto other differences that can be used to define the gender. “Part of being a father is being a good role model and so I want to make sure that my kids grow up to be fit, healthy and well balanced. It’s the key to them having a good life” (Gough, 2001). The male gender is characterized by the biological disparities that exist between men and women onto which the social constructionist theory is constructed upon. According to this study, the masculinity concept is seen to be focused on the male physiology which is supported by Courtney’s suppositions. Summary Foucauldian discourse analysis has been used, in this study, to elucidate what entails masculinity in from different participants from different social backgrounds. It has been able to conclude that there exists a benchmark quality attached to masculinity. According to Beynon (2002), this quality is focused on physical strength, but there have been gradual changes towards embracing other attributes that were deemed unmanly in the past. Social constructionist theory is supported by the findings established by this study because it clear that the concepts of masculinity are subject to modification to suit an individual’s desires and needs. The theme of being manly as being rough and tough is well supported by examples from excerpts in the literature provided. It is widely accepted even in today’s world that masculinity should have some substance of physical strength, which goes to support Courtney’s assumptions (2000). The theme that masculine gender socialisation and social norms models encourage men put their health at risk. This is seen when half of the respondents shows that gender socialisation actually contributed to men’s involvement in risky and life threatening behaviour. It has also been illustrated that men do not take their physiology for granted, but instead it is a valued attribute. According to Burr (2002), a compromise to the well being of their physiology is seen as a threat to their identity and masculinity and affects them emotionally. A gap pertaining to insights pertaining to change in the concept of masculinity have been established. This has been illustrated by men’s willingness to incorporate the suppressed emotional part of their being as an essential component. Therefore, it suffices to say that the Foucauldian discourse analysis method is a good technique of establishing societal norms that have been constructed and facilitated through social constructionism. This methodology can be used to further research in sociology and other psychological fields of study like criminology and psychiatry. Reflective Summary My ultimate goal is to become a psychologist in the future, which I know requires many sacrifices that have to be made along the way. The field of professional psychology is wide, and I know that it requires careful consideration before deciding on which career path to follow, and that is why I have tested a few areas of interest in the period I have been here. One of these endeavours saw me work as a volunteer at a local peers group and healthy living workshop where I was able to observe people’s changing behaviour towards healthy living. I was also able to witness people’s efforts, in trying to come with ways, to avoid illnesses that could be prevented through a lifestyle change. These experiences made me realize that I wanted to further my studies and attain a Masters degree in Health Psychology. In my current study of psychology, I have taken a broad-based approach in research and the core aspects of theory in psychology. This has given me a firm foundation in basic psychology in the areas deemed essential by the British Psychology Society. My chosen career path will be greatly influenced and enhanced by the interests and knowledge that I have garnered and developed, in contemporary areas of psychology. I have been able to achieve this through participation in research. My work as a volunteer in the local peer groups and healthy living workshops will immensely contribute to my advancement in the in my health psychology career path. Through volunteering, I can be able to improve on my interpersonal skills by interacting with different people from different cultural, social and economic backgrounds. With this kind of exposure, I will be able to approach problems in a unique perspective because I will have an understanding of the various backgrounds that people come from. In health psychology, I will have an opportunity to work in various settings with the most common being in clinical and medical establishments. In such settings, I will be required to apply my skills in focusing on psychological, social and biological factors that influence health. It involves conducting behavioural assessments, personality tests and clinical interviews that act as diagnostic methods used in health related illnesses. Health psychology also involves research an area that I need refining because I believe the skills I have acquired are not satisfactory. I mean to improve on this by consulting regularly with my librarian to get more directions on quality research methodologies. I also have a weakness when it comes to the intricacies involved in plagiarism, and in this area, I will get directions on how to review my criteria for reviewing the suitability of sources and collaborate with the University lecturer in the design of that will help to employ critical thinking. To achieve this, I need to improve my time management skills and try avoiding procrastination of my duties. To improve my chances of becoming a chartered member of the British Psychology society via the health psychology, I strive to acquire more academic qualifications by undergoing training in relevant fields of psychology. Since health psychology is also concerned with public policy, I believe I have acquired sufficient experience in the field of interpersonal relations. I would consider under other related courses like a short database management course, which will improve my research skills. I am confident that my endeavours will be greatly beneficial if I focus on fulfilling these objectives. References Beynon, J. (2002). Masculinities and culture. London: Buckingham Open University Press. Burr, V. (2002). Genderand Social Psychological. London: Routledge Publishing. Courtney, W. H. (200). Construction of Masculinity and their Influenceon Men’s Well-being: A Theoryof Gender and Health. Social Science and Medicine. London: Routledge Publishing. Gough, B. (2001). Biting Your Tongue: Negotiating Masculinities in the Contemporary. Britain: Journal for Gender Studies. Potter, J., & Hepburn, A. (2005), Qualitative interviews in psychology: Problems and possibilities. Qualitative research in Psychology. London: Oxford Publishing. Rogers, W. S., & Rogers, R. S. (2001). The psychology of gender and sexuality. London: Open University Press Smith, J. A. (2007). Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Methods. London: SAGE. Stainton Rogers, W., and Stainton Rogers, R. (2001) The psychology of gender and sexuality. An introduction. Maidenhead: Open University Press. White, D., and Howard, C. (2008). Adjust the balance: The roles, behaviour, attitudes and identity of men in the 21st century. London: The Learning Skills Council Willig, C. (2008). Introducing Qualitative Research in Psychology. 2nd Illustrated edition. New York: McGraw-Hill International. Read More