An Important Mediator of Academic Achievement - Essay Example

?Running head: SELF-EFFICACY & ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT Self-Efficacy – An Important Mediator of Academic Achievement Insert Here Insert AffiliationHere Self-Efficacy – An Important Mediator of Academic Achievement It is surprising how levels of academic achievement vary drastically among students who otherwise possess equal intelligence and cognitive potentials. This variation has been attributed to innumerable factors such as motivations, interests, modes of education, and even demographic features of students. A student’s aspirations and willingness to achieve academic success largely depend on his/her psyche. Self-efficacy is perhaps one of the most explored and admired psychological determinants and mediators of academic achievement. The concept of self-efficacy arose with Bandura’s influential paper, Self-Efficacy: toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change (1977). The concept of self-efficacy emphasizes self-belief and confidence in one’s own capabilities and competence. Ever since the concept of self-efficacy took form, many studies have explored its role in educational success. It is now a proven fact that self-efficacy is an important mediator of academic achievement. This paper attempts to evaluate some studies and research evidence that support this claim. The implications of the findings of these studies for teachers and instructors are also discussed. I. The Concept of Self-Efficacy as described by Bandura A person’s belief in his/her capabilities in exercising “control over events” affecting his/her life is the central idea of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1989, p. 1175). According to Bandura, self-efficacy induces “motivation” that in turn leads to “effect” which then gives rise to “action”. Human cognitive processes are affected by self-belief, influencing thought patterns that may either aid or hinder progress. People tend to aspire higher if they have a stronger self-efficacy, and so, they tend to achieve better than those who have weaker self-efficacy. It thus acts as a strong motivator. When faced with a difficult task, people tend to either master it or avoid doing it. Those who attempt a seemingly difficult task and succeed in it, gain an increase in self-efficacy and their fear and tendency to avoid the task reduce significantly (Bandura, 1977, p. 191). Self-efficacy is an important determinant of academic performance as students whose experiences raise their self-efficacy set higher goals and are more mentally conditioned to acquire those goals. Thus, in contrast to students lacking self-efficacy, students with higher self-efficacy tend to achieve higher as they believe in their own capabilities, estimate their strengths more accurately and tend to utilize available resources more efficiently. II. Evaluation of Research Evidence that Supports the role of Self-Efficacy in Academic Achievement Many studies have explored the direct effects of self-efficacy on the academic performance of students. Some of these are evaluated here. A. Self-efficacy, learning strategies and personal goal setting Studies by Zimmerman and Bandura (1994, as cited in Zimmerman, 2000, p. 87) on high school students show that existence of higher self-efficacy as well as personal goal setting at the beginning of a term at school increased the prediction of final grades by 31%. This study also found that self-efficacy along with personal goal setting, compared to the Scholastic Aptitude Test verbal subscale, raised the prediction of final grades by 35%. Self-efficacy is not only an efficient predictor of final grades but also leads to an efficient use of learning strategies. Studies by Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons (1990, as cited in Zimmerman, 2000, p. 87) on fifth, eighth and eleventh graders suggest that increase in self-efficacy leads to a significant increase in both verbal and mathematical efficiency, along with an improved use of strategy. Several studies on training outcomes suggest that encouraging students to set their own personal goals and instructing them to set proximal goals instead of distant ones enhances their self-efficacy, thereby increasing their achievement rates (Schunk, 1985; Bandura & Schunk, 1981, as cited in as cited in Zimmerman, 2000, p. 88) B. Learning from observation and enactment Studies by Schunk (1981, as cited in Zimmerman, 2000) on training outcomes of students with “learning and motivational deficiencies” reveal that students who observed an adult carrying out a task using cognitive strategies and then emulated those actions had higher self-efficacy that translated into higher academic achievement. This study suggests that watching others carry out a seemingly difficult task easily helps in overcoming doubts of one’s own capabilities and also directs how the task can be approached. C. Self-efficacy and skill In another relevant study by Abd-El-Fattah (2005), in which 64 first-year University students enrolled in a statistics course were examined, it was found that self-efficacy in statistics was an important determinant of their achievements in the subject. The effect of self-efficacy, however, was not independent. This study found that two other factors, namely, experience with computers and anxiety related to computers also affected academic achievement in the course. It is thus evident from this study that though self-efficacy is an important mediator of achievement at a task, the existence of necessary skills that help in the completion of that task are necessary, without which, self-efficacy cannot help in increasing the probability of higher achievements. D. Self-efficacy and self-concept Ferla, Valcke and Cai (2009) studied the structural relationships between academic self-efficacy and self-concept. Self-concept is different from self-efficacy wherein, self-concept refers to people’s perceptions and knowledge about themselves and self-efficacy refers to people’s convictions that they can achieve better (p. 499). The study by Ferla, Valcke and Cai was conducted on 15 year old students’ literacy in reading, mathematics and science. Important findings of the study suggest that self-efficacy and self-concept are two independent constructs. However, self-efficacy is highly influenced by self-concept and not vice versa (502). It is important to note from this study that while self-concept is an important mediator of “affective–motivational variables”, self-efficacy better predicts academic achievement. This study draws out an important relationship between a student’s knowledge about his/her skills, which affects his/her self-efficacy, which in turn influences academic achievement. It can thus be inferred from this study that it is essential to improve students’ self-concept by enabling them in understanding and accurately estimating their abilities. This would enhance their self-efficacy and academic achievements. E. Self-efficacy and feelings of isolation A study by Marra and Bogue (2006) on 164 undergraduate female students of engineering courses from five different institutions in the United States reveals that while self-efficacy has a positive effect on academic achievement, it is also influenced by the students’ feelings of isolation. The students’ self-efficacy was negatively affected by feelings of isolation, especially experienced by minority students. Furthermore, self-efficacy scales did not change as the students progressed from one year to the next. The findings of this study reveal that self-efficacy, which is also interrelated with confidence, decreases when a person feels isolated. Moreover, the fact that self-efficacy remained constant even after the students progressed from one year to the next suggests that the existing curriculum is either not designed to promote growth in self-efficacy or it obstructs growth in self-efficacy (Marra and Bogue, 2006). These findings have important implications for research in the academic field, especially on curriculum design and implementation. F. Self-efficacy and Self-regulated learning Zimmerman (1990) has inferred from his studies on students’ self-regulated learning factors that self-regulated learning, in which students organize, plan and control their own instruction helps students to achieve better at academics (p. 14). These self-regulation processes include “perceptions of self-efficacy” (p. 5). Self-efficacious individuals are better at self-regulated learning and are in a better position to achieve academic excellence. A meta-analytic investigation by Multon, Brown and Lent (1991) on the relationship between self-efficacy and academic outcomes reveals a positive and statistically significant relationship. These relationships correlated well across a variety of “subjects, experimental designs and experimental methods” (p. 30). It is thus evident from the present discussion on research evidence that self-efficacy is an important mediator of academic achievement and is influenced by a variety of external factors. III. Implications for teachers Since the role of self-efficacy on positive academic outcomes have been elaborated, investigated and confirmed, it will be easier for teachers and academic instructors to formulate better teaching strategies and positively influence the learning outcomes of their students. The implications of the studies presented in this paper are discussed further. Teachers should focus on helping and encouraging their students in setting their own goals. Thus, the students can take responsibility of their own learning outcomes and so, will be better motivated to achieve higher through enhanced self-efficacy. Students should be given goals that are “proximal” rather than those that are “distant”. Instead of asking students to complete an entire task, they should be given smaller tasks that take them closer to the completion of the larger task. This gives them a better estimation of what is required and what they can do to achieve it. Furthermore, as the studies suggest that students learn better by observing others performing the same task, they should be shown the work of students who are high achievers, in order to enhance their belief in their own selves. However, teachers should note the thin line between comparing and stimulating, as low-achievers often feel degraded when compared to high achievers. This would negatively affect their perceptions of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy without the necessary skills is like a gun without a bullet. It can shoot but lacks what is needed to make the necessary impact. Students who are self-efficacious, yet lack the skill of performing a task, cannot achieve academic excellence. Although teachers should promote self-efficacy in students, they should also help them in accurately estimating their abilities and in acquiring the necessary skills that are lacking. In such cases, the students should be shown what is lacking and how those skills can be acquired, instead of just asking them to do better at a task. Another key research finding is the influence of self-concept on self-efficacy. Teachers can enhance students’ self-concept by giving them positive, accurate and specific feedback on what they already possess and what they are lacking in. By properly orienting the students’ self-concept, teachers can positively influence their self-efficacy and in turn, induce positive learning outcomes. Studies have suggested that students who feel isolated lack self-efficacy. Programmes should be designed to promote student interaction and teachers should avoid commenting on any aspect of a student that may point him out as being unusual or different from others. By avoiding racism, preconceived notions on a student’s abilities, commenting on a student’s appearance, behavior or any other such cues, in public, may push the student towards feeling isolated. This would negatively affect his/her self-efficacy and learning outcomes. Students should also be encouraged in self-regulated learning. They should be prompted to organize their study lessons, plan their own approach towards exam preparation and control their medium of instruction by using alternative educational supplements such as multimedia interactives, online educational tools and virtual laboratories. By changing their sensitivities and understanding the concept of student self-efficacy, teachers will be able to cultivate better learning outcomes and enhance academic achievement. It is thus concluded that while self-efficacy is an important mediator of academic achievement, teachers can help in promoting it through various strategies outlined here. References Abd-El-Fattah, S. M. (2005). The effect of prior experience with computers, statistical self-efficacy, and computer anxiety on students’ achievement in an introductory statistics course: A partial least squares path analysis. International Education Journal, 5, 71-79. Retrieved 9 October, 2011 from http://ehlt.flinders.edu.au/education/iej/articles/v5n5/fattah/paper.pdf Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy theory: towards a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215. Retrieved 9 October, 2011 from http://des.emory.edu/mfp/Bandura1977PR.pdf Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44, 1175-1184. Retrieved 9 October, 2011 from http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&id=1990-01275-001 Ferla, J., Valcke, M., and Cai, Y. (2009). Academic self-ef?cacy and academic self-concept: Reconsidering structural relationships. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 499–505. Retrieved 9 October, 2011 from http://jamiesmithportfolio.com/EDTE800/wp-content/Self-Efficacy/Ferla.pdf Marra, M. R. and Bogue, B. (2006). Women Engineering Students’ Self Efficacy – A Longitudinal Multi - Institution Study. Proceedings of the 2006 WEPAN Conference, WEPAN-Women in Engineering Programs and Advocates Network. Retrieved 9 October, 2011 from http://www.engr.psu.edu/awe/misc/ResearchPagePDFs/120_Marra-Women.pdf Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 30-38. Retrieved 9 October, 2011 from http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&id=1991-16867-001 Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement: An Overview. Educational Psychologist, 25, 3 – 17. Retrieved 9 October, 2011 from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15326985ep2501_2 Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 82-91. Retrieved 9 October, 2011 from http://www.unco.edu/cebs/psychology/kevinpugh/motivation_project/resources/zimmerman00.pdf Read More