Phobias and Addictions - Essay Example

? Phobias and Addictions The essay aims to address a two-fold objective to wit to discuss how phobias and addictions are related to classical and operant conditioning; and (2) to differentiate classical from operant conditioning and explain the process of extinction. Phobias and Addictions Introduction Phobias, addictions, and other forms of maladaptive behaviors are often explained and dealt using the different behavioral approaches and studies. B.F. Skinner and other behaviorists proposed that abnormal behavior is a result of maladaptive behavior learned through faulty rewards and punishment (Maitland, 2004, 260). Behaviorists believed that behaviors can be learned and unlearned that they developed classical conditioning and operant conditioning studies to extinguish unwanted behavior and replace with more adaptive behavior. Together with observational or learning theory, classical conditioning and operant conditioning form the foundation of behavior therapy. Classical conditioning involves reconditioning through counterconditioning techniques such as systematic desensitization, flooding and aversive conditioning over repeated trials while operant conditioning modifies behavior through token economies and modification of respective consequences (Maitland, 2004, 260). Both classical and operant conditioning aim towards behavior modification, not only in cases of phobias and addictions, but also in treating emotional responses and psychosomatic disorders. To understand the relationship between phobias and classical conditioning and addictions and operant conditioning, the author will explore how phobias can be developed through classical conditioning, how addictions can be developed through operant conditioning, distinction between classical and operant conditioning, and how extinction is achieved in classical and operant conditioning. Phobias and Classical Conditioning A number of life applications of classical conditioning can be observed in the surrounding. Classical conditioning also plays a vital role in the survival of human beings as people learn to associate fear in instances that would endanger the lives of self and other human beings. In addition, the development of phobias (irrational fear of a stimulus or situation) is also attributed to classical conditioning (Nicholas, 2008, 118). Psychologists believed that phobias are conditioned emotional responses (CERs) to previously neutral stimuli (Nicholas, 2008, 118). Phobias can be developed through classical conditioning by following the principle of counter-conditioning. In counter-conditioning, a fear-producing stimulus is repeatedly paired with another stimulus incompatible with the fear to eliminate the conditioned fear response. Development of phobias works in reverse way: a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired to another stimulus that elicit fear. The most often cited study about phobia development through classical conditioning is the experimental study of John Watson and Rosalie Rayner (Nicholas, 2008, 119). In Watson and Rayner’s study, a nine-month-old infant named Albert was conditioned to fear an animal that appeared simultaneously with a loud, fear-arousing sound. After repeated experiments, Albert developed fear from the rat and from all familiar things and animals that were presented to him simultaneously with fear-arousing sound such as the sound of the hammer hitting the steel bar and the noise of the barking dog. By repeatedly conditioning the participants to neutral stimulus with fear-arousing stimulus, phobias from certain stimulus being introduced with the fear-arousing stimulus developed. Acquiring phobia through classical conditioning works the same process with learning to overcome phobias. Addiction and Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning works differently from classical conditioning as subjects are not only exposed to the stimulus or environment but also act in the environment, learn consequences of one’s action, and involve association between response and consequences. The consequences of one’s action determine the response, whether increase or decrease likelihood of engaging into the tested behavior. Operant conditioning is often used as the backbone theory used to explain addiction. Operant conditioning works through the concepts of positive or negative reinforcements or commonly known as rewards and punishments. In the conditioning process, psychoactive substances such as alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, heroin and benzodiazepines, food, and sex are all reinforcements that determine the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. There are two types of reinforcements: positive reinforcements and negative reinforcements (Mitcheson et al., 2010, 23). Positive reinforcements are rewarding while negative reinforcements remove or reduce aversive state. Applied in the concept of addiction, people get addicted because of high reinforcements and experience of a rewarding feeling during the early stages of addiction. A stage performer who wanted to increase alertness, concentration, and energy may take methamphetamine and may feel rewarded because of feeling of euphoria and enhance self-esteem. The person may view the positive effects as highly reinforcing; thus, a positive reinforcement. The rewarding feeling gained from the reinforcements increases the likelihood of taking methamphetamine which may further lead to substance addiction. Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both useful in explaining the nature of behavior such as those of phobias and addictions; however, a number of distinctions were noted between the two. Classical conditioning deals only with voluntary behavior, making it a passive process. Neutral reinforcement strengthens and works the conditional response whether or not the subject likes it and the response is elicited by the reinforcer which has to be given before the response is made. In addition, there is no little or weakening of the reinforcement (unless response is extinguished) and it can only trigger one type or response. On the other hand, operant conditioning deals with voluntary and involuntary behavior and is often viewed as an active process. Reinforcement may either be positive or negative which strengthens the conditional response. Reinforcement is given after voluntary response and then is strengthened. Reinforcer used schedules to alter response and extinction rates and can also be used to strengthen different responses from using shaping techniques. Extinction Extinction is defined as the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that result in the decreasing or disappearing of behavior (Nevid & Rathus, 2010, 52). Extinction in the classical conditioning occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. For instance, the smell of food (unconditioned stimulus) and noise from the plates (conditioned stimulus) may trigger conditioned response of hunger. If the smell of the food was no longer paired with the plate, the conditioned response of hunger would gradually disappear and become extinct. Meanwhile, extinction occur in operant conditioning when the reinforcement used to train certain behavior is no longer rewarding or effective. For instance, a mother has been using positive reinforcement to encourage good behavior among her children. When a child throws follows her mother diligently, the mother rewards the child with a chocolate. After several days of this, the children become sick of the chocolate, and throw away tantrums easily. Because the children have become satiated and the chocolate is no longer rewarding, extinction of the trained behavior has occurred. References Maitland, L.L. (2004). Treatment of Psychological Disorders. 5 Steps to a 5 AP Psychology (p. 256-270). New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Mitcheson, L. et al. (2010). Cognitive and Motivational Theories of Addiction. Applied Cognitive and Behavioral Approaches to the Treatment of Addiction: A Practical Treatment Guide (p. 21-40). Massachusetts: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Nevid, J.S. & Rathus, S.A. (2010). Personality. Psychology and the Challenges of Life: Adjustment and Growth (11th ed.) (p. 38-80). Massachusetts: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Nicholas, L. (2008). Learning. Introduction to Psychology (2nd ed.) (p. 112-138). Lansdowne: UCT Press. Read More