Review and Analysis of the Theory of Language Learning - Essay Example

?Does Language Have an Innate Component, or is it Purely Learned? Language is an inherent part of human nature and human life. Regardless of where a person lives or is brought up, they learn a form of language. It forms the basis of the way that we communicate with one another and acts both as a means of facilitating communication and as a barrier to communication depending on the specific circumstances that are involved. Through language, we are able to express thoughts and ideas in a way that is recognisable to others, and to which they can respond in form. Because of this, language has formed the basis of our society and it allows for the organisation and structure with which we are familiar. The framework for language, the way that it is processed, developed and facilitated is a subject that is open for discussion, with research covering a range of different focuses and theories. Most prominent among these are the theory of innate language forwarded by Chomsky, the cognitive perspective forwarded by authors such as Bruner, Piaget and Vygotsky and the behaviourist perspective by Skinner. Study on language has become prominent in the last 50 or so years. This essay will examine the behaviourist perspective that Skinner advocates and the theory of innate language from Chomsky. These two approaches have been debated extensively both by the authors and by other writers and researchers. There are many different languages spoken throughout the world, and these differ substantially in their complexity as well as the grammar and structure that they use . For example, in the English language, the word order is generally subject-verb-object, while the order differs in other languages. It is often easy to recognise someone for who English is not their first language, as they will periodically use the wrong word order, or miss the subject of the sentence. It has been noted that when children begin to learn a second language prior to puberty (a time known as the critical period), they often develop full and native-like use of the language. They are able to consistently use the correct form of grammar regardless whether they are speaking their first or their second language, and the use of one does not make the other more difficult . People who begin to learn their second language after puberty tend to encounter significantly more difficulty, with only a small proportion of individuals who begin learning after puberty ever reaching the same level of proficiency that is common in pre-pubescent learners . These factors draw people into the study of language, of trying to understand how people learn language and what is responsible for the prominence of language among humans but not other species. Another reason for the fascination into language is the way in which it is learnt, for children quickly understand and speak their first language, without any specific training. Children do not learn a simple language, but one that is complex, full of specific rules and structure, yet with relatively little exposure they are able to master that first language . How is this possible? The work of Noam Chomsky in the field of linguistics has been prominent since the 1950s. His work has been influential in many different disciplines, particularly linguistics, but also in other fields such as psychology and philosophy . The key proposal and focus of Chomsky’s work is the idea that there is an innate part of language, an aspect that is inherited from one generation to the next. Skinner presents an alternative view to that which Chomsky forwards, rather than considering language to be innate and inherited, Skinner forwards the concept that it is developed behaviourally. His theory was the result of analysis of different aspects of language for 23 years. It was presented to students at University lectures, during which time the theory continued to develop . This approach is based off studies of animal behaviour in the laboratory and extended to human behaviour, specifically verbal behaviour and thus language. Skinner proposes that language is learnt through the process of an individual being taught. Under Chomsky’s perspective, the way in which children and babies learn language can only be explained if some aspect of language, some knowledge of the world was built into them, innately inherited from their parents. If this was not the case, how then could children learn so fast, and predict the functions of objects that they do not know and have never seen. He argues that this is little different than the way that humans innately know that they have arms, they do not have to determine whether instead they have wings . He considers that for this to occur, humans must have access to a repository of grammar, which they inherit. This has since become known as Universal Grammar (UG), and has been proposed as crucial for learning ones first language, as well as subsequent languages . Consequently, it is considered that if a language violated the UG then it would not be learned in the same manner that other languages are. One argument against Chomsky’s view is that is considers language as it stands in the present day. However, this does not explain how language has developed from its early roots. For example, it is often considered that early human language was based on gestures rather than verbal communication. If this is the case, then it is difficult to align this form of language with Chomsky’s idea of innate language and a universal grammar. Debate between the two perspectives has been on more than just scientific grounds. Skinner considered that Chomsky’s theories and focus on internal states was useful only as an avenue for future research, rather than a conclusion itself. It has been suggested, by Chomsky himself as well as others, that Skinner’s approach is unscientific . Additionally, Skinner has given little rebuttal to arguments against his theory, while Chomsky has continued to develop and change his theory and predictions based on new evidence and scientific study. While the arguments that Skinner employs as to presence of operational conditioning are well recognised within the scientific community and the field of biology and behavioural science, the link that Skinner draws between this behaviour and that of humans learning language is less well supported. The theories of Chomsky and Skinner consider the way that language is acquired. Although they appear to contradict one another, and the authors disagreed consistently, the two theories can work together to some degree. In early life, a child can learn languages fast and effectively, perhaps as Chomsky suggests this is through accessing Universal Grammar or through another mechanism. In later life learning language may be more based on behavioural reinforcement than on any innate factor. One similarity between the ideas forwarded by Skinner and by Chomsky is that they both focus on the way that people learn and acquire language. Chomsky considers that it is not the process of learning that is the key factor in learning language, but that the inherited Universal Grammar and innate knowledge forms the basis. In contrast, Skinner considers that it is the process of teaching itself that is more relevant. Chomsky argues that there is an innately inherited aspect of the human brain which allows for analysis and recognition of language. He considers that this is the reason that only humans appear to have a developed and complex language, while this is absent in other species. When children are young, they learn language fast, with little to no specific teaching and this can occur with relatively limited exposure. This is not limited to the first language that the child learns, but if they begin to be exposed at a young age, then the child may learn multiple languages with proficiency similar to that of a native. Under Chomsky’s theory, this occurs because humans have innate knowledge of language that is inherited. However, Skinner considers that this learning occurs through positive reinforcement, which is not often not intentional or conscious on the part of parents. For example, when a child says their first word parents are excited and pleased, and the child learns that speaking is something to be desired. Throughout the process of learning, this positive reinforcement encourages the child to continue to develop the language, and informs them of when they are using language correctly and when they are not. Another aspect of this is the acquisition of a second language. For the most part, humans learn their first language quickly and at a young age, however learning subsequent languages is a more difficult process, with many people never reaching complete proficiency with any language other than their first. For someone who begins to learn their second language later, the two appear to interact. A person whose first language was French and second is English will not forget to use the subject in a sentence, as this is a common structure to both languages. However, a person who spoke Spanish first, then English will frequently leave out the sentence subject, as this is not a feature of the Spanish language. Likewise, people for whom both languages share the same sentence structure will make less mistakes than those for whom the languages significantly differ in structure. Chomsky’s approach suggests that this difference is the result of the access that individuals have to the Universal Grammar decreasing with age. Consequently, those who learn young have more access and are able to learn the language and its grammatical structures completely, while those who learn it at a later age cannot . Alternatively, Skinner’s approach suggests that somehow the ability or desire to learn decreases with age. This has not received as much empirical study; however, it is reasonable to consider that our learning ability may decrease with age. An interesting example of the two theories is the case of Genie, a child who suffered from extreme deprivation for most of her childhood, from infancy until she was 13 years of age. There is limited ability for science to study what effect deprivation has on the learning of language, as such experiments are inhumane. Yet, knowing how learning occurs in the absence of stimulation is a crucial aspect to understanding what drives human language to exist in the form that it does. Genie was never spoken to, often ignored and spent most of her life locked in a room in the dark. For Genie, speech development was extremely slow, at first using single words in the way that toddlers do, later moving to two word strings and occasionally three word ones. According to Chomsky’s work, Genie should have been able to develop language and understand the rules of grammar as a consequence of the Universal Grammar that was part of her genetic makeup. However, this was not the case. She was unable to comprehend differences between passive and active verbs, and did not understand pronouns . This case was of interest to Chomsky and led to a modification of his theory, where he proposed that, while all humans have access to Universal Grammar, it must be activated by a certain age prior to puberty. However, the case also provides evidence for Skinner’s theory. Genie was not exposed to language during her development, and as a consequence, she was unable to learn language even in her adult life. However, it is important to note that the case of Genie may well be an unusual case. Certainly, she was exposed to a large amount of trauma during her formative years and this could have had a significant effect on her mental state. Consequently, her inability to learn language may not be representative of the way in which humans learn language as a whole, but rather indicative of the particular circumstances that she was raised in. In his work Skinner proposes that humans learn language through a behavioural mechanism of reinforcement, which is commonly seen in other behaviours. Chomsky considers that this is not an accurate, nor scientific, assessment, and that it does not adequately explain the way in which children are able to learn their first language with little input and no direct teaching. Of the two approaches, the Universal Grammar theory proposed by Chomsky has gained the most scientific support, and continues to be studied and examined. Although it is not as evident in later life, there appears to be significant proof that children learn much faster at a young age than can be explained by reinforcement References Birdsong, D. 1992. Ultimate Attainment in Second Language Acquisition. Language, 700-710. Chomsky, N. 1976. Reflections on Language, Temple Smith London, 1-38. Chomsky, N. 1987. The Chomsky Reader, Pantheon, 160-165. Chomsky, N. 2000. New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind, Cambridge Univ Pr, v-viii, 7. Gass, S. M. & Selinker, L. 2008. Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course, Taylor & Francis, 1-10. Hawkins, R. & Chan, C. Y. 1997. The Partial Availability of Universal Grammar in Second Language Acquisition: The ‘Failed Functional Features Hypothesis’. Second language research, 13, 187-226. Hyltenstam, K. & Abrahamsson, N. 2000. Who Can Become Native-Like in a Second Language? All, Some, or None? Studia linguistica, 54, 150-166. Pines, M. 1997. The Civilizing of Genie. In: Kasper, L. F. (ed.) Teaching English through the Disciplines: Psychology. Skinner, B. F. 1948. Verbal Behavior, Harvard University, i-vii.  Read More