Fundamental Principles of Neuroscience - Research Paper Example

?Fundamental Principles of Neuroscience Neuroscience can be defined as an interdisciplinary approach in understanding the complexities of the human brain. Emotions, memory, body function and kinetics, as well reasoning can be attributed to how the brain is wired to process them clearly. The study of the brain may well have a long history, but studying the human mind as a whole is a relatively new science, which started just around the 1970’s (Bear, Connors and Paradiso 2007). With the advancement of technologies at an exponential rate, not only can modern neuroscientists observe behavior of their test subject but the brain activity as well, by using different imaging methods, such as MRI, PET, CT Scans, etc. Through imaging, it was found out which parts of the brain were more active than others at a given instance (Cartier and Shieh 2010). The responses of living organisms to external stimuli are made possible by the grouping of many specialized cells that exist to transfer information rapidly from one part of the organism to the other. These cells are called neurons, or nerve cells (Kiernan and Barr 2009). To facilitate the transfer of information, there is conduction of a signal from one part of the cell to another, and the synaptic transmission, or communication between adjacent cells. Impulse is a wave of electricity that is propagated on the surface of the nerve cell. A stimulus applied to the cell would create an impulse that would travel to all parts of the cell (Bear, Connors and Paradiso 2007). The long and elongated parts of a nerve cell are called neurites, whose ends are called synaptic terminals. These ends are the parts that make cell-to-cell contact possible. In higher forms of organisms, the neuritis are called axons (transmits information away from the cell) and dendrites (transmits information to the cell). Most, if not all of the activities done by the human body is under the control of the nervous system, which is divided into two parts: the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS) (Nolte 2009). The PNS is basically all of the nerves that are branched out and is scattered throughout the body. They relay information to and from the CNS, which is then composed of the brain and the spinal cord, both of which are enclosed in bone. For the brain, it is inside the skull, and for the spinal cord, in the vertebral column or the backbone. The brain itself consists of many divisions. These are the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem (Bear, Connors and Paradiso 2007). The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, which is parted in to the right and left hemispheres by the longitudinal fissure, and is consisted of the frontal lobe, the temporal lobe, the parietal lobe and the occipital lobe, with the diencephalon as the central core of the cerebrum (Kiernan and Barr 2009) The cerebellum lies below the cerebrum, and the brain stem lies in between the spinal cord and the cerebellum. The outer part of the brain is made up of gray matter, which is primarily pinkish gray due to abundant blood supply, and consists of interneurons, projection neurons, motor neurons and endings of sensory fibers from the other parts of CNS (Nolte 2009). White matter, on the other hand refers to the inner part of the brain that is consisted of axons, which have a myelin sheath that is mostly lipid, hence giving it a fatty, white appearance. The whole brain itself is surrounded by the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which is basically a saline solution (Cartier and Shieh 2010). Many imaging methods are used to visually capture the brain’s activities. Among these are the following: Cerebral angiography: an enhanced X-ray that uses dyes to increase the contrast between the soft tissues of the brain, which is normally not visualized clearly with regular X-rays; Computerized tomography or computerized axial tomography (CT or CAT scan) – an advanced X-ray method that takes many scans from multiple angles and with the help of a computer can create a composite picture of the scanned area; Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)- same principle as a CT scan but with a higher resolution, which is why it is frequently used not just in the medical field of neuroscience but in the research area as well; Functional MRI (fMRI) - MRI that is used to observe neural activity over a time period; Positron Emmision Tomography (PET)- more frequently used in neural activity than in brain activity. It uses a positron-emitting isotope being injected into the carotid artery, and the decay of the positrons are measured by a gamma-detecting device encircling the subject’s head; Single-proton Emission computerized tomography (SPECT) - pretty much the same as PET, with the scanning feature of the CT scan to create a full picture of the neural activity; Electroencephalography (EEG) – only measures the brain’s electrical activity, and is not much of an imaging method when used alone. Can be combined with fMRI or other imaging techniques to provide an accurate visual representation of neural activity; Magnetoencephalography (MEG) - measures changes in the magnetic waves on the surface of the scalp produced by underlying patterns of neural activity; and Optical Imaging – produce images of neural activity by measuring changes in blood flow and metabolism from the surface of the brain (Cartier and Shieh 2010). To find out if the two hemispheres of the brain would be able to work the same process, a study called split-brain analyses/study was conducted. One of the people known in this field is Michael Gazzaniga, a professor of Psychology at the University of California Santa Barbara, and was one of the pioneers of split-brain studies, along with Roger Sperry. Through their research, the communication between the two hemispheres as well as the capacity of each to do specific activities was clearly demonstrated (Cartier and Shieh 2010). One of their findings was that by bisecting the brain, exchange of information would be disrupted, in such a way that any visual, olfactory, tactual, or auditory information presented to one hemisphere could be processed in that side only, but will not even be absorbed by the other hemisphere (Gazzaniga and LeDoux 1978). Another thing is that although one hemisphere would majorly be responsible for specific tasks (e.g. language skills, motor tasks), the processes are bilateralized, in the sense that the hemisphere that would be perceived as non-performing was actually involved minimally with the task at hand. The way the mind thinks and perceives the environment is composed of different thought processes that come together in their respective orders and create decisions. In Gestalt psychology, the concept of order has been the main force of all things, which can be observed in all living beings (Koffka 1935). Most of the time, many people solve their everyday problems by putting their thoughts in order while gathering all the facts, in order to come up with simple or complex solutions. On some cases, however, instead of objectively finding the appropriate answer, people rather rely on their memories and create biases, which may or may not create errors in their decisions (Galotti et al. 2010). These are called cognitive illusions, which are in the sense that are an individual’s perception of what is or what is not really present. They are pretty much like optical illusions, wherein the light from the object to the eye is bent by reflection (e.g. mirrors) or by refraction (e.g. pencil bent in water, mirages). Optical or sensory illusions could also arise from overstimulation and/or prolonged stimulation by one or all sensory organs (Gregory 1968). On the other hand, acoustic illusions utilize sounds and give rise as to how different kinds of sounds are perceived by the ears. Sound can be perceived as a “good continuation” – sounds perceived as blending, “proximity” – nearer elements are grouped together easily compared to sounds that are far apart, and “similarity” – sounds that sound alike are grouped together (Howard and Angus 2001). Groupings in the succession of notes would give illusions as to whether a passage has repeats or not. Too much stimulation in the retina, for example could create negative or positive pictures when the line of sight is changed, causing an illusion. With cognitive illusions, too much stimulation in the brain by the same idea repeatedly would give the illusion of a method or an idea being reliable all the time. An example is the Gambler’s Fallacy, where there is an instance of belief in the law of small numbers. This is fallacious because the lower the number is, there is an increased likelihood of it deviating from the actual population and is therefore a less reliable basis on which to build a conclusion on (Galotti et al. 2010). Suggestional processes are somewhat similar to cognitive illusions in the sense that suggestive and intuitive strategies may show an easier way out to from some problems, ignoring other potentially available solutions at hand. But not all illusions have negative effects. Most of them are actually coping mechanisms, like protection, orientation and support. Errors in decision-making also can tell something about the ways that people gather, sort, and integrate the information they use for making a choice. Coping functions lead to support and ensure that biological, psychological and social needs are met (ibid.). Neuro-psychoanalysis is a discipline that came out from behavioral neurology. It provides the contact between psychoanalysis and neuroscience, which originally came from behavioral neurology, the progenitor of psychoanalysis (Solms and Kaplan-Solms 2002). By combining the study of the anatomical structure of the brain, then correlating the manifested symptoms with it, this becomes the basis of research for pathophysiological mechanisms of diseases and their treatment. Damages to different parts of the brain would produce a variety of symptoms and eventually, mental changes. Luria, the proponent of neuro-psychoanalysis was an opponent of Freud, although the latter did start from trying to find the mind-body connection. The study of psychoanalysis by Freud was by finding the “psyche”, by addressing the human emotions, and creating balance, without much of the intervention of analyzing the physical structure of the brain. In the case of neuro-psychoanalysis, this may prove to be difficult, but probable under certain conditions (Solms and Kaplan-Solms 2002). Since neuro-psychoanalysis focuses more on the objectivity rather than the subjectivity of human emotions, many are skeptical about using this as an approach like psychoanalysis. This is because the way humans think are not localized in just one part of the brain, but is rather a dynamic and complex system. In dissecting the structure of the humans’ personality, emotion and motivation, it would prove to be hard due to resistance: shame, guilt, anxiety, etc (ibid.). To be able to find out the organization of the human brain, there must be a dissection of the internal psychological structure of various changes in personality, motivation and emotions that come with damage to different cerebral structures. The available methods for testing and assessing neurological patients were only for visuals, speech and calculation, which do not require human emotions to work. Therefore, there is a necessity of bringing both psychoanalysis and behavioral neurology, now neuro-psychoanalysis together in order to fully understand and grasp the complex human emotions that differentiate them from other animals. By combining biology with the study of the mind, the possibility of fully mapping the overall human personality may become a reality, as long as it is carefully and precisely observed, recorded and analyzed. References Bear, Mark F., Conners, Barry W., and Paradiso, Michael A. 2007. Neuroscience: exploring the brain. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins Carter, Matt and Shieh, Jennifer C. 2010. Guide to research techniques in neuroscience. San Diego, California: Elsevier Inc. Howard, David M. and Angus, James A.S. 2001. Acoustics and psychoacoustics. Kent, UK: Focal Press Galotti, Kathleen M., Fernandez, Myra A. and Fugelsang, Jonathan. 2010. Cognitive psychology: in and out of the laboratory. Ontario: Thomson Wadsworth. Gazzaniga, Michael S. and LeDoux, Joseph. 1978. The integrated mind. New York: Plenum Press Gregory, Richard L. 1968. Perceptual illusions and brain models. Proc. Royal Society B 171 179-296 Kiernan, John A. and Barr, Murray Llewellyn. 2009. Barr’s the human nervous system: an anatomical viewpoint. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins Koffka, Kurt. 1935. Principles of Gestalt psychology. London: Routledge Inc. Nolte, John. 2009. The human brain: an introduction to its functional anatomy. Philadelphia: Mosby Elsevier Solms, Mark and Karen Kaplan-Solms. 2002. Clinical studies in neuro-psychoanalysis: introduction to a depth neuropsychology. New York: H. Karnac Books Ltd. Read More