Review and Analysis of Theories of Intelligence - Essay Example

?INTELLIGENCE, TESTING AND DISCRIMINATION Introduction Intelligence is defined differently by scholars but it basically includes a person’s abilities to comprehend ideas, learn, engage in various forms of reasoning, plan and solve problems. Moreover, intelligence comprises abilities of abstract thought, emotional knowledge, visual processing and reaction time. The major models of intelligence include: Sternberg’s, Gardner’s, the Fluid and crystallized abilities and the Cattel-Horn-Carroll Theory. According to Framingham (2011, p. 1) intelligent quotient is a theoretical measure of general intelligence. He asserts that IQ tests do not measure the specific intelligence of a person but rather assess what is held as important ingredients of intelligence. Framingham (2011, p. 1) explains that there are two basic measures used in testing the one’s intelligence; that is, neuropsychological assessment and intelligence tests. However, intelligence tests are mostly used since neuropsychological assessment can take up two days. The most common types of intelligence test administered are the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scale. Discrimination and bias in the work place environments have been an issue for decades. Despite the implementation and design of new rules and laws to protect vulnerable individuals, the problem persists and has devastating impacts. Discrimination cuts across various areas such as change of gender, pregnancy, sexual preferences, individual nationality and race, age and beliefs. In order to curb this behavior, stringent laws need to be developed to guard people against discriminative attitudes. Major Models of Intelligence and Their Influence to Modern Tests Different models of intelligence have had great in the modern test administered in schools. Sternberg came up with the triarchic theory of intelligence. According to Sternberg, use of measurable mental abilities used in intelligence tests is narrow. He asserts that these forms of assessments lead to a biased conclusion since it tests one part of intelligence which is only evident in people who are smart in academics. Consequently, Stenberg argued that giftedness should be tested by encompassing other components of intelligence. The triarchic model categorizes intelligence to three parts including analytical intelligence, synthetic or creative intelligence and the practical intelligence. Analytical intelligence is described as an ability to accomplish an academic or problem solving assignment (Sternberg, 2003, p. 99). These kinds of tasks are tested using clear problems with a single correct answer. In synthetic or creative intelligence, a person’s ability to solve a new and extraordinary problem by use of a combination of existing knowledge and skills is tested (Sternberg, 2003, p. 88). On the other hand, practical intelligence is defined as the ability to adapt to the daily life by application of available knowledge and skills. This form of intelligence helps an individual to figure out what needs to be done in a particular setting and then do it. Stenberg’s model of intelligence has shaped modern tests where currently aptitude tests have different sections to measure a person’s creativity, analytical and practical skills where those being tested are assessed on how they can apply their skills and knowledge to real life problems. Gardner developed the multiple intelligences theory. The theory explains that individuals are able to understand the world from language, musical thinking, spatial representation, and mathematical analysis. Moreover, the theory explains that we comprehend the world through solving problems by use of our bodies and understanding ourselves and others in the society (Armstrong, 2000, p. 3). Gardner noted that individuals in the power of these intelligences and the way these intelligences are used to perform various tasks solve problems and excel in other disciplines. Multiple intelligence theory has shaped learning and the tests given in schools. Schools currently strive to ensure to impact different intelligences as proposed by Gardner. (Armstrong, 2000, p. 3) asserts that there are various online tests to assess an individual’s multiple intelligences. Most interviews test a person’s different abilities where one is required to list their abilities in addition to their academic qualifications. The other major model of intelligence developed by Cattell is known as the fluid and crystallized intelligence. Ferrer O'Hare and Bunge (2009, p. 46) explain that fluid intelligence is the ability to reason out logically and solve problems in new situations free from the acquired knowledge. Fluid intelligence calls for the ability to analyze a new problem, recognize the patterns and relationships that characterize this problem and come up with solutions. Ferrer O'Hare and Bunge (2009, p. 46) explain that fluid intelligence involves inductive and deductive reasoning. On the other hand, crystallized intelligence involves the capability to use knowledge, skills and experience. Ferrer O'Hare and Bunge (2009, p. 46) assert that this form of intelligence should not be equated to knowledge or memory. Nevertheless, it relies on retrieving information from the long term memory. Crystallized intelligence improves as one advance in age and experiences helps to increase a person’s knowledge. A person’s crystallized intelligence is demonstrated by the extent of their general knowledge, ability to argue by use of numbers and words Ferrer O'Hare and Bunge (2009, p. 46). Moreover, crystallized intelligence is indicated by one’s vocabulary and this form of knowledge is acquired through learning along with cultural experience. Most IQ tests strive to measure both fluid and crystallized intelligence. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale tests fluid intelligence on the performance scale while crystallized intelligence is measured on the verbal scale. A person’s IQ is combined score in both scales (Ferrer O'Hare and Bunge, 2009, p. 46). Cattel-Horn-Caroll model of intelligence is a combination of two theories on the content and the structure of cognitive capabilities. Flanagan and Harrison (2005, p. 23) explain that CHC theory is the most complete and empirically backed psychometric model on the structure of academic and cognitive abilities. The model has been developed and revised by different scholars with the latest being in 2011 by McGrew. Cattell-Horn-Carroll noted that there are a large number of distinct differences among individuals. Consequently, the model classifies these models into three different groups of narrow, broad and general abilities. Flanagan and Harrison (2005, p. 23) explain that many tests incorporate CHC model with the model being a useful foundation in psycho educational assessments. Flanagan and Harrison (2005, p. 23) observes that five out of seven intelligence tests incorporates CHC as a basis for identifying and implementing cognitive processes. Relationship between Race, Ethnicity, Culture, Gender, Age and Disability and Measurement of Intelligence From the different intelligence models discussed by different scholars, it is evident that one’s intelligence is shaped by different factors such as experience, cognitive abilities, learning and age. Consequently, different tests should be used in the measurement of a person’s intelligence. In intelligence testing different tests should be used for people from different ages. Ayeska (2010, p.1) explains that Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, the Standford-Binet Intelligence Scales and Otis-Lennon School Ability Test are used in some elementary schools in New York to and other parts of the world to measure the intelligence of students before they can be admitted to these schools. However, Ayeska (2010, p.1) observes that these exams are usually intended to test the intelligence of kids who are four years old in a way that is not affected by socioeconomic conditions and the cultural background of the person. Ayeska (2010, p.1) explains that administering IQ tests to very young children does not rule out the influence of one’s socio-cultural influence which can influence the test results. There is a Wechsler scale for measuring the intelligence of adults in order to be sensitive of the person’s age. Measuring of intelligence should take into consideration whether a person has a disability or not. Ayeska (2010, p.1) explains that Raven’s Progressive Matrices is useful in measuring the abilities levels of children and people having learning problems to the fluid intelligence. Furthermore, they explain that one’s verbal ability may be or may not be caused by geographic and organizational contexts and it is critical to eliminate bias when measuring intelligence. How to Manage the Impact of Bias and Discrimination The concept of discrimination and bias has been on the limelight concerning work diversity. In the 21st century, diversity dynamics are changing greatly. Ancient paradigms have ignored discriminatory behaviour patterns in organizations. Individuals assume that the behaviors are conscious. For instance, they believe that, individuals who understand better always do correct things whilst those who do not cause prejudice. Thus, the diversity of bad person/ good person paradigm has developed. A belief whereby perfect individuals are inclusive and not biased and biased ones are bad people (Rose 2008, p.3). The principal element behind the inclusion of professional and diversity work is the ability to identify individuals labeled as bad people and try to fix them via eradicating bias. Achieving complete eradication of bias can be through, creating of a society that is just and equitable. Moreover, coming up with organizations in which each individual has an avenue to fare measures of achievements. It is not fare for any organization to discriminate against individuals based on their group identification. In the world today, the major issue is the actual and perceived age discrimination. According to Butler (2009, p.242), ageism is a systematic process that discriminates and stereotypes against individuals who are old. Recently, more viewed is the concept of ageism in that, it refers to potential discrimination and consequently prejudices against certain age groups in the work place. To overcome the impact of discrimination and bias, various scholars have suggested various alternatives. For instance, age diversity to be a reality in most organizations and corporations. Increased age diversity at the environment of work place, leads to decreased levels of discrimination argued from the point of familiarizing older workers in a work force (Kunze et al., 2011, p.267). Diversity increment leads to a climate that is more positive as heterogeneity workforce atmosphere is acknowledge by employees. Despite the accuracy of the arguments, scholars propose a distinct correlation between increased levels between a conceived age discrimination and age diversity. They argue that, the increase in a company’s age diversity differs significantly from gender diversity increment. This is because, diversity in age is not fostered actively or controlled by firms, but is an outcome that is directly related to Western economies demographic change. Inactive diversity-management programs accompany these changes. The available theoretical arguments, perceives a relationship that is positive between age diversity increase and perceived age discrimination levels in the place of work. The assumption between all these arguments is that, there exists a negative impact on age growth diversity among social integration members. For example, a weak psychological linkage exists towards competing for similar goals. The Role of Equality Legislation Constitutions either written or unwritten reflects normative culture and values that adopt them. Any constitution should aim at promoting justice especially in societies committed genuinely to gaining justice. Nevertheless, no constitution is ready to endorse justice in a culture with no commitments. An acceptable convergent degree should be facilitated by the judicial review. A correlation between celebrated abstract ideology and political culture actual practices should coexists in conducting daily affairs. In contrast, majority of the judicial reviews serves a parallel function. The judicial equality principles, a backbone of legal cultures that are mature bases on various beliefs. For example, the judicial system requires that, like things need to be handled alike. On the other hand, a political culture prefers allocating burdens and gains in ways that promotes the violation of the principle of equality. This is via, according treatments that are differential to groups and individuals founded on various characteristics. These characteristics are such as, wealth, gender, sexuality, race, political association and conviction based on religion. Hypocrisy in equality proclaiming while actively promoting discrimination produces a cognitive disagreement that if not checked would lead to destabilization. Alternatively, an individual might think that destabilization is a perfect thing. Destabilization exerts pressure on various cultures. These put a halt to behaviors that are discriminatory. However, the perceived differences between practice and principle might not yield beneficial effects if the conflict between practice and principle can be degenerated (Spann 2011, p.558). The disability and equality rights Acts aim at protecting disabled individuals and preventing disability discrimination. The Act covers extensive areas such as, public body functions (For instance, licenses issuing), buying or renting of properties or land, employment, education and access to services, goods and facilities. The facilities comprises of transport services that are land based and private clubs that are larger. The Act concerning equality also issues individuals with the right of not being harassed or discriminated on the grounds of associating with an individual who is disabled (“The Disability and Equality Act 2010”). European Union in the past has founded policies, treaties and legislations that have continuously received criticism for not providing a gender perspective equal citizenship. However, in the previous decade, issues related to gender and organization intimacy have acquired a progressive audience in the agenda of the European Union policy. The shift is because of the rising gender mainstreaming, equal opportunities and positive actions concept in the European Union Policy gender equality documents. The European Union agenda on gender equality focus on a broader aspect of issues such as, those related to employment, domestic violence, policies at the family level and women and men position in making decisions politically(Meier & Lombardo 2008, p.482). Conclusion In the urge to end discrimination and bias, there is need for affirmative action programs. The purpose of the program is to eliminate both invisible and visible barriers. In such a case, there is creation of a level playing field and equal opportunities are availed to individuals whether in the work place, political environment or any other place. However, the program not necessarily yields equal outcomes. Instead they are based on the notion that, if there were a reality in equal opportunities, then women, men , whites, blacks, disabled individuals and all those affected by discrimination would then be incorporated fairly in the work force of a nation and learning institutions. Affirmative action debate has demarcated a divide in philosophy. This has led to the isolation of individuals with parallel views of the dilemma facing Americans. Whereby, they are struggling to find solutions on how the African Americans, women and other individuals with different color skin should be treated. References Ayeska, K. 2010. ‘Intelligence Exams Discriminate against Minority Children’ The Online Journal on African American English accessed 23rd February, 2012 < http://africanamericanenglish.com/2010/02/25/intelligence-exams-discriminate-against-minority-children/> Butler, R. 2009. ‘Ageism: Another form of bigotry’. The Gerontologist, Vol.9, 243–246. Ferrer, E., O'Hare, E., and Bunge, S. A 2009. “Fluid reasoning and the developing brain.” Frontiers in Neuroscience, 3, 46-51. Flanagan, D., and Harrison, P 2005, Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues’, 2nd Ed., New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Framingham, J 2011. ‘Types of Psychological Testing. Psych Central’. Retrieved on February 23, 2012, from http://psychcentral.com/lib/2011/types-of-psychological-testing/ Kunze, F., Boehm, S and Bruch, H 2011, “Age diversity, age discrimination climate and performance consequences- a cross organizational study.” Journal of Organizational Behaviour, Vol.32, pp. 264-290. Armstrong, T 2000, “Multiple intelligences in the classroom.” Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development: Alexandria, VA: pp 1-3 Meier, p., & Lombardo, E. 2008. ‘Concepts of citizenship underlying EU gender equality policies.’ Journal of Citizenship Studies, Vol.12, no.5, pp 481-493. Ross, H. 2008. “Proven strategies for addressing unconscious bias in the workplace.” Journal of Diversity Best Practices, Vol.2, no.5, pp.1-17. Spann, GA. 2011. “Constitutional Hypocrisy.” Constitutional Commentary, Vol.27, pp.555-580. Sternberg, R. J. 2003. ‘Giftedness According to the Theory of Successful Intelligence’. In N. Colangelo & G. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of Gifted Education (88-99). Boston MA: Allyn and Bacon. The Disability and Equality Act 2010. Viewed from http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/DisabledPeople/RightsAndObligations/DisabilityRights/DG_4001068. Read More