Schema's Effect on Memory Needs - Essay Example

Theory: Effect of Schemas on Participants’ Recall of a Story Abstract: The aim of this experiment was to investigate the effect of schema on participants’ recall of a story. Members of my group and I looked into this by reading out an unfamiliar excerpt (one from Beowolf) and testing the participants’ abilities concerning the recall of key words. The hypothesis assumed was that participants would have difficulty recalling key words that do not fall into typical schemas/ words that are not applicable to their vocabulary or lives. We tested this on multiple groups of participants. This was done by following the same procedure in which they would be exposed to, and then they are required to recall, an excerpt from an unfamiliar text. Our findings show that participants seemed to be unable to recall key words from the text. This was even more apparent after testing the same participants 5 weeks after the first experiment was conducted. This was due to how inapplicable these words or scenarios were to participants as they could not be stored in any pre-existing schemas. This further portrays the relevance of schemas when considering memory and the way in which people perceive the things they come across. This proved to be a significant study as understanding our schemas and the ways in which they work may assist us greatly regarding memories and categorising groups of people or related objects. Table of Content Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………....2 Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………………….3 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Stetement of the Problem Cognitive psychology is the study of how people perceive, learn, remember and think about information. A schema on the other hand refers to a cognitive framework which helps us in organizing and understanding the information we receive from the world around us. Schemas are critical neurological device that are of constant use in everyday life. Piaget (1952) defined a schema as “a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning”. Schemata on the other hand could be said to be the psychological constructs proposed as a form of mental representation for some form of complex knowledge. Schemas are not only a way of organizing knowledge but also the basic building blocks of intelligent behavior Piaget speaks about their relevance to a person’s development, claiming that as development occurs, the number and complexity of a schema that the person had learned increases. When a child’s schemas are able to explain what the child is experiencing around it, the child is considered to be in a state of equilibrium (mental balance). The reason for the increase of the complexity of schemas as we age is due to the advancement in cognitive function that occurs as we age. Piaget believed that newborn babies have a number of schemas prior to ever having much opportunity when considering experiencing the world. These schemas (“neonatal”) are considered to be the underlying cognitive structure that assists with innate reflexes which are genetically given to us. An example of this is the natural sucking reflex that babies obtain. Piaget assumed that this is an example of a schema that a baby has already obtained. In the case of Bartlett’s “War of the Ghosts” schemas and their relationship with memory was investigated. Bartlett discovered that words or actions that did not fit into the participants pre-existing schemas (ones that would arise from norms concerning the culture) were substituted or overall forgotten by participants. When asked again to recall the story at a later period in time recall proved to have worsened. Findings show that participants manipulated the story in order to remember it. Participants portrayed three patterns of distortion in an attempt to recall the story; assimilation, leveling and sharpening. This study portrayed that remembering as an active process in which information is retrieved and then manipulated in order to fit into pre-existing schemas. This occurs in an attempt to create meaning from the information received. Bartlett claims that humans are on a constant search for the meaning in the information they retrieve. Bartlett created the concept of reconstructive memories. This mostly translates to memories not being precise copies of experiences, but rather being reconstructions of those. This does not necessarily mean memory is unreliable completely but instead that memory can change due to our pre-existing schemas. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study would be to not only test, but also look into the effect of pre-existing schemas on participant’s recall of a story. Research Questions For purposes of this study, the guiding research question will be: Is the longer the time intervals in between listening to the story and recalling the story, the more memory loss will occur? The null hypothesis for purposes of the study would be that Memory is not a reconstructive process. Recall is solely a result of the time intervals. On the other hand, our Non-Directional would be that over time recall of the story may or may not decrease or increase. Chapter 2 METHOD Research Design The study employed the use of quantitative method, a procedure of collection and analysis of quantitative data of the research process in a bid to clearly understanding the research problem more clearly. In the quantitative model of research, there is more reliance on numerical data through the use of post positivist claims for developing knowledge like the cause and effect thinking, the reduction of specific variables, hypothesis and questions, measurement and observations and lastly the test of theories. The study will isolate variables and causally relate them in a bid to determine the magnitude and frequency of relationships in addition to also determining the various variables to investigate and choosing instruments yielding highly reliable and valid scores. Our experiment for purposes of the study requires at least three independent subject groups in order to obtain impartial results. The same procedure was followed considering all groups. This experiment was conducted in the fashion of an independent subject design experiment. A possible issue with the concept of individual subjects is that it causes variability in data collected. Variables in the Quantitative Analysis The research question, “Is the longer the time intervals in between listening to the story and recalling the story, the more memory loss will occur?” predetermines a number of variables for this study with the independent variables being the amount of time that the participants were given for the recollection of the story. The dependent variable on the other hand would be the accuracy and detail in which the participants were able to recall the story. It is worth appreciating the fact that a categorical variable will be used as a grouping variable in the discriminant function analysis. The identification of the factors was done through literature review analysis and the various theories on the effects of Schemas on participants’ recall of a story. Controls needed: Maturation Contamination Placebo Participants: 20 participants Our target population was ACS Hillingdon High School students between the ages of 14-18, not all participants were native english speakers though they were all well educated, international children from wealthy backgrounds. Due to a lack of resources we had to conduct the experiment through the use of convenient sampling. We were made to do this despite being well aware that random sampling would have led to more accurate results. The four convenient samples were taken from three math classes and an economic class . All participants in the class were participating in the experiment at the same time but communication was not allowed. For the control condition we selected 8 random and willing participants to get an understanding of how well people were able to recall unfamiliar texts. Materials: (appendix 1) Excerpt from Beowulf. Paper (To write down recollection) Pen (To write down recollection) Stopwatch Procedure: Experiment: 1. Explain the focus of the experiment. (appendix 2) 2. Hand out consent forms. (appendix 3) 3. Collect both forms. 4. Hand out the excerpt. (appendix 1) 5. Read out controlled instructions. (appendix 2) 1. Read the instructions, allow them to read instructions. 2. Hand out excerpt. 3. Begin timing. 4. Take away excerpt. 5. Time interval. 6. Hand out papers and pen. 7. Ask them to recall story. 8. Collect sheets after time interval. 9. Thank them for their participation. 10. Read out the debrief. 11. Answer any questions they may have about the experiment. Results: Raw data - (Appendix 4) Discussion: The experiment conducted portrayed a significance considering the data collected. I reject the null hypothesis and accept the experimental hypothesis that the longer the time intervals in between listening to the story and recalling the story, the more memory loss will occur. There is a possibility of type 1 error when considering a conclusion in which the researcher accepts the experimental hypothesis. Researcher bias may lead to unjust interpretation of data, which would in turn lead to an inaccurate conclusion. When considering the experiment and experimental method there are a number of areas of limitations. The conclusion that more memory loss would occur the longer the time intervals leads to the belief that the experiment has a causal effect. The longer the time interval the less precise the memory which shows that this study has internal validity. Our making use of a pilot study assisted in ensuring the variables had been both tested and considered prior to the procedure. Due to the status of our sample (we had obtained participants through convenient sampling) our experiment lacks external validity. Our results correlate with that of Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts. The process of the recollection of an unfamiliar texts links to the overall process of memory as an active process that is crucial information when considering humans as information processors and that mental representations guide behaviour. The better our ability to understand this the more able we will be to understand the human mind and the process of memory. We chose this excerpt as it would not be common knowledge for the age range and so the chances of the participants having seen it before were very slim. Because of apparent time restraints, participants were selected through convenient samples. This placed limitation on the extent the experiment could be externally valid. More replications of this experiment should be conducted in order to enlarge the chances of it being accepted by the scientific community. Some confounding variables were that off that it lacks ecological validity, the experimenter was known by the participants which may have led to either bias or a more relaxed and unprofessional setting. Controls were set through the pilot study. To further look into this concept I would conduct another experiment or multiple experiments to a more specific audience as it would assist in making the experiment more reliable. Another variable that could also be tested was which specific words were changed to fit into the participants recollection of the story. Conclusion: In conclusion my study portrayed that there was a large correlation between schemas and memory as when first being exposed to the story participants were more likely to remember key words, if any words at all, after the first time interval and not when asked again weeks later. This further portrays the relevance of schemas to our memories and our ability to recollect information we are exposed to. The importance of this experiment is apparent as it portrays memory to be an active progress. Bibliography: Disparate Effects of Repeated Testing: Reconciling Ballard's (1913) and Bartlett's (1932) Results. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://pss.sagepub.com/content/3/4/240.short Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology - Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett, Frederic C. Bartlett - Google Books. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=WG5ZcHGTrm4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=bartlett+war+of+the+ghosts&ots=BCaViAGthO&sig=x6LU49MbT-BAypvu84xxXsmoSXI#v=onepage&q=bartlett%20war%20of%20the%20ghosts&f=false SOME EXPERIMENTS RELATING TO BARTLETT'S THEORY OF REMEMBERING - GAULD - 2011 - British Journal of Psychology - Wiley Online Library. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1967.tb01054.x/abstract;jsessionid=EB8C52534D65B4E3A374C9394F0D0938.f03t02?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&userIsAuthenticated=false Taylor & Francis Online :: The role of culture‐specific schemata in the comprehension and recall of stories∗ - Discourse Processes - Volume 1, Issue 1. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01638537809544425#.U3tgn1hdUag Taylor & Francis Online :: Some Experiments on the Reproduction of Folk-Stories - Folklore - Volume 31, Issue 1. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0015587X.1920.9719123?journalCode=rfol20#.U3tgn1hdUag Appendices Appendix 1: Excerpt used from Anglo-Saxon’s Beowolf. “ Hrothgar, king of the Danes, or Scyldings, builds a great mead-hall, or palace, in which he hopes to feast his liegemen and to give them presents. The joy of king and retainers is, however, of short duration. Grendel, the monster, is seized with hateful jealousy. He cannot brook the sounds of joyance that reach him down in his fen-dwelling near the hall. Oft and anon he goes to the joyous building, bent on direful mischief. Thane after thane is ruthlessly carried off and devoured, while no one is found strong enough and bold enough to cope with the monster. For twelve years he persecutes Hrothgar and his vassals.” Appendix 2: As we entered the room, we passed out first this sheet of paper and then a consent form. We asked that participants read and understand this fully before signing the consent form. We again made participants aware that they had the right to withdraw at any given time. Purpose The purpose of this study is to determine the role of pre-existing schemas in the recollection of information. Procedure If you agree to participate you will be asked to follow the following tasks: 1. You will be given an extract. 2. You will be asked to read the extract. 3. After an amount of time, the extract will be taken away. 4. There will be a time interval. 5. You will be given a pen and a sheet of paper. 6. You will be asked to write down your recollection of the extract. De-brief: We are investigating the use of schemas in correlation with memory. We have been looking into the concept of our inability to recall words or stories that do not fit into any of our pre-existing schemas. Appendix 3: Statement of Consent form: In order to partake in this experiment it is compulsory that you give your informed consent. By signing this informed consent statement you are indicating that you comprehend the nature of the experiment, your role in the experiment and that you agree to participate in research collected from this experiment. Please insure the following before signing: - I have been notified regarding the nature of this experiment. - I comprehend that I have the right to withdraw at any time in the experiment; any information or data collected about me will be kept completely confidential. - My anonymity will be protected, as my name will not be distinguishable. - Over the course of the experiment it will be conducted so that I will not be degraded in any way. - I will be debriefed at the end, and have the chance to discover my results if desired. I give my informed consent to participating in this experiment Name: _________________________________________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________________________________________ Appendix 4: Raw data totals: Participants 5 minute Interval Key Words Remembered (12 key words) 5 minute interval – words total (108 words) 6 week interval – key words remembered 6 week interval – words total (108) Percentage change – loss in amount of recall between the intervals 1 2/12 (16%) 23/108 (21%) 0 (0%) 16/108 (14%) KW-16% TW-7% 2 4/12 (33%) 72/108 (66.6%) 1/12 (8.3%) 31/108 (28%) KW –24.7% TW – 38% 3 3/12 (25%) 61/108 (56%) 0/12 (0%) 19/108 (17%) KW-25% TW-39% 4 2/12 (16%) 44/108 (40%) 0/12 (0%) 6/108 (5.5%) KW – 16% TW – 34.5% 5 2/12 (16%) 44/108 (40%) 0/12 (0%) 10.108 (9.25%) KW – 16% TW- 30.7% 6 2/12 (16%) 52/108 (48%) 0/12 (0%) 26/108 (24%) KW – 16% TW – 24% 7 2/12 (16%) 49/108 (45%) 0/12 (0%) 33/108 (30%) KW – 16% TW – 15% 8 0/12 (0%) 7/108 (6.4%) 0/12 (0%) 6/108 (5.5%) KW – 0% TW – 0.9% 9 4/12 (33%) 65/108 (60%) 1/12 (8.3%) 18/108 (16%) KW – 24% TW – 44% 10 2/12 (16%) 43/108 (39%) 0/12 (0%) 26/108 (24%) KW – 16% TW – 15% 11 4/12 (33%) 64/108 (59%) 0/12 (0%) 34/108 (31%) KW – 33% TW – 28% 12 1/12 (8.3%) 24/108 (22%) 0/12 (0%) 23/108 (21%) KW – 8.3% TW – 1% 13 4/12 (33%) 23/108 (21%) 0/12 (0%) 3/108 (2.7%) KW – 33% TW – 18.3% 14 2/12 (16%) 36/108 (33%) 0/12 (0%) 13/108 (12%) KW – 16% TW – 21% 15 2/12 (16%) 36/108 (33%) 1/12 (8.3%) 23/108 (21%) KW – 7.7% TW - 12% 16 0/12 (0%) 18/108 (16%) 0/12 (0%) 18/108 KW – O% TW – 0% 17 2/12 (16%) 28/108 (25%) 0/12 (0%) 6/108 (5.5%) KW – 16% TW – 19.5% 18 6/12 (50%) 43/108 (39%) 1/12 (8.3%) 20/108 (18%) KW – 41.7% TW – 21% 19 3/12 (25%) 67/108 (62%) 0/12 (0%) 29/108 (26%) KW – 25% TW – 36% 20 5/12 (41/6%) 44/108 (40%) 0/12 (0%) 32/108 (29%) Kw – 41.6 TW – 11% Totals table: After 5 Minutes After 6 Weeks Average key word recall 21.2% 1.66% Average word total 38.6% 17.8% Results findings: Table of observed frequencies: (O) After 5 Minutes After 6 Weeks Loss in amount of recall between the intervals Average key word recall 21.2% 1.66% 19.6% Average word total 38.6% 17.8% 20.795% Totals: 100% 100% 100% Expected frequencies: (E) A: 100*19.6/100 = 19.6 B: 100*20.795/100 = 20.795 C: 100*19.6/100 = 19.6 D: 100*20.795/100 = 20.795 Read More