Dress and gender. Arab women managers and identity formation through clothing - Research Paper Example

? Table of Contents 2 1Introduction 2 1Problem ment 5 2Discussion 6 2.1Clothing and gender identity 6 2.2 Sexual orientation 8 2.3Religion 9 2.4Ethnic identity 10 2.5Symbolism in clothing 11 3Conclusions 11 Reference 13 Abstract Experts in the field of fashion and psychology have contended that clothing gives information about the wearer’s identity, while also delineating and communicating social identity of the wearer to the surrounding observers. Clothing (along with other personal accessories) categorizes the wearer as belonging to a certain social and economic class (rich/poor; urban/rural dweller; chairperson/factory worker), of a specific gender (like a male or a female member of the society), age (children, young adults, adults, or old people), and profession (like doctor, lawyer or a priest). Therefore, one can conclude that clothing is a mode of communication (nonverbal), which creates the first and a lasting impression of the wearer, on the observer. It is almost impossible to wear clothes without revealing to some extent the personal and social identity of the wearer, and his or her view of the world. The present study explores all existing links between clothing and personal identity, and derives that a close relationship exists between the two at different levels, while taking into consideration the wearer’s gender, age, social class, religion, ethnicity and symbolism of clothing. 1 Introduction “I speak through my clothes” — Umberto Eco (quoted in, Hebidge 1979, 100) Within prevalent cultural and social norms observed worldwide, clothing largely reveals the wearer’s personal identity and his or her attitude towards the world. This attitude is directly represented by the wearer’s character, which is created through his or her personal identity (or personality). There are various uses of clothing, wherein besides covering one’s body, as Buckley and Roach suggested it is also used for satisfying “human needs and desires. It may function as a means of protection” (1974, 95), while simultaneously acting as a strong nonverbal mode of communication. The clothes that an individual choose to wear tend to acts as a motivation for the wearer, steps up his or her level of confidence, and increases self-respect. Observations have revealed that various kinds of psychological emotions are created through the choice of clothes that people make and in their beliefs as how the world views them through their choice of clothing (Cox and Dittmar, 2005, 237-265). Therefore as Crane maintained “clothing choices provide an excellent field for studying how people interpret a specific form of culture for their own purposes” (2000, 1). Researchers reveal that in conservative and rigid societies (as in many of the Asian countries) cultures develop in a manner that not only allows promotion of meaning in the traditional form of clothing, but also in the process through which socially approved clothing is created. In such conservative and traditional societies, aspects like origin of fabric are given equal importance as how the cloth is worn and by whom (often clothes are strictly gender specific in such societies) (Barnes and Eicher, 1992, 29-43). Thus, clothes also reflect one’s social identity, along with revealing one’s personal identity. In contrast, European culture, through the course of history, has shown far more flexibility in terms of changing patterns in clothes' fashion and style statement. Such changes show the uncertainties that always existed within European social relationships, and were evident in phases depending on changing times and varying influences, which in turn often created recurring imbalances within social identities. Creative instabilities related to clothing have arisen from contentions between age groups (like young and old), gender (male and female), sexual orientation, worldliness vs. domesticity, sports vs. work, restraint vs. freedom and rebellion vs. conventionality (Davies, 1992, 18). Therefore, even though the wearer may regard clothing as a matter of personal choice and identity, at any point of time there are collective currents playing within society that influence the wearer’s sense of self, and manifest themselves in the form of clothing (Davies, 1992, 17). This is evident when we find that in the western world currently there is a collective social current focused on physical and mental wellbeing, which in turn is supporting a large market related to leisure and sports clothing. Each piece of clothing worn by an individual reveals something about the wearer, primarily in the context in which the cloth is worn. Even before one verbally communicates with a stranger, an impression is formed, as regards social and economic class, gender, sexual orientation, religion and ethnicity, which is purely based on clothes worn by the stranger (Knapp and Hall, 2009, 3-31). This impression often helps one to decide as to whether he/she wishes to have any further interactions with the stranger. Here one must remember that the impression derived from clothes is not merely visual, there are other aspects involved, like, smell, touch, and even sound (like the ‘rustle’ of silk), all of which work together to produce a collective impact on the observer, which may be positive or negative. Clothing is one of the main factors that provide a person with a form of social identity, which varies to certain extent depending on the wearer’s personal identity, the context in which the cloth is used, company, place, occasion, and even the wearer’s mood. Therefore, clothing not only say reveals one’s stand in the society, but it also shows one’s kinship with the prevailing social, moral and religious norms and values. In the current western world, diverse forms of clothing and lack of any rigid norms related to taboos on clothing show the doing away of Victorian era ethical and moral values and the emergence of a freer society that lacks rigidity in terms of clothing. 1.1 Problem statement It is evident that there is close relationship between the concept of one’s identity (both personal and social) and clothing, where the latter expresses, reflects, and even shapes one’s identity, inculcating within the wearer a sense of materialism. It is thus a useful mechanism using which one can analyze the changing processes through which old social identities are integrated into the modern society and culture. Questions related to a wearer’s identity are especially relevant in the context of clothing, as the processes of categorization, like relegating others and one’s own self, into specific social groups, form to be a normal part of everyday interactions. Some of the sociologists and psychologists like Appadurai (1990) have reviewed this issue, and referred to as the ‘celebration of specificity and otherness.’ From the theory of social identity, as conceptualized by Tajfel & Turner (1986), it has been seen that wearers, (especially young adults or adolescents) take into consideration the question of identity, where there is a strong desire to belong to the society, along with a wish to be different and avoid becoming prosaic. Thus, in the context of social identity and clothing, the thesis statement is: Clothing is a key factor that defines and displays the wearer’s social and personal identity. 2 Discussion The link between clothing and social identity is of great importance, as the individual that wears the clothes is part of a society, and hence with a social identity of his own. Any individual living within the realms of a society has a desire to belong to it, which creates the concept of a strong social identity (Jenkins, 2008). In this context Tajfel and Turner suggested that various groups or categories found with a society (like, social class, members of a particular profession, family, etc.) to which people living within that particular society belong, form to be a source of self-esteem and pride (Tajfel, and Turner, 1986).  These groups give the people a strong sense of social identity and a feel of belonging, to the surrounding social world. Besides creating a sense of social identity, each individual member is always competing with members of other social groups in order to attempt and enhance his own sense of self-identity. Clothing is a medium through which an individual is able to express his own sense of identity, both social and personal (Jenkins, 2008). There are various factors within the realms of social and personal identities, like gender, sexual orientation, religion, and ethnicity that are observed in the clothing of an individual, making these factors important while exploring the link between identity and clothing. 2.1 Clothing and gender identity The relationship between clothing and gender has always been the most significant one, amongst the other factors. Social theorists like Entwistle (2000) viewed clothing as being synonymous with gender identity. While on one hand clothing have been used to mask gender differences (as in biological terms), on the other hand, it has been used to point out and communicate through various presumptions regarding gender identity through dress codes (Naumann, Vazire, Rentfrow, and Gosling, 2009). Thus, here one can assume that fashion recreates gender identity in the form of wearer’s body style, where an intricate reciprocation is formed between gender identity and the so-called ‘sexed’ body style (Kim, 2005), which makes the relationship between gender identity and clothing unclear. It is this essence of uncertainty existing between gender and clothing, which the social theorists claim, has always been at the core of fashion (Teeslon, 1995). The distinctive link that exists between clothing and gender, to some extent also reflects a society's perspectives on gender bias, as regards to the social norms formed through various preconceived notions on what is correct for a male or a female member of the society (pertaining to dressing, and other social etiquettes). Thus, we find clothing both reflects and establishes gender bias. In most cases, the relationship between clothing and gender tend to follow norms set by society for indirectly promoting sexual propositions, albeit in a manner approved by the society that assists in mating and reproduction, helping society to survive. Women, until very recently, were the medium through which men represented their status symbol, wealth and social standing (Hansen, 2004). While men decided to stick to stoic dressing for centuries, the women of the family dressed elaborately as per their social standing and husband’s, father’s, or brother’s wealth and prosperity status (Hansen, 2004). Thus, patriarchal society is represented even in clothing where the men usurped a woman’s identity, reinforcing her state of dependence, powerlessness, and little self-worth. Such were the norms in the patriarchal society (observed even now in many societies of the world) where women were blamed for sexual assaults committed on them by men, on charges of wearing provocative clothing. Therefore, here we find that the link established between clothing and gender identity relegated female members of the society to the position of second-class citizens, where they merely reflected their husbands or fathers financial positions. Clothes play an important role in externally assessing an individual’s personality. Clothing and mood are two interrelated aspects that mostly affect the overall personality of an individual. Experiential studies have shown that when an individual wears new clothes, he or she expresses a sense of confidence. Sexual orientation is expressed through some stereotypical clothing behaviors, where in the realms of a conservative society (and even in modern developed nations) there is a prevalent belief that women in a workplace should not wear dresses that attract her male counterparts towards her body, and the focus should be on their authority, power, and wealth (Omair, 2009). 2.2 Sexual orientation Sexual orientation is an aspect of sexual experience that is associated with great social and political significance. It however lacks any constant class or gender boundary or specific social category. The term sexual orientation is different from gender identity (clear social categorization of male or female member of the society) and is often referred to as transvestitism (Heinze, 1995). Transvestitism is the desire in an individual to wear clothes of the opposite gender, and is known as psychosexual inversion (Ellis, 1936). Another related term is transsexualism which portrays one’s desire to undergo sex change in the anatomical sense. These conditions implicate that such individuals are primarily homosexual in their sexual orientation, and hence society labeled both the groups as homosexuals. Despite widespread instances of cross dressing found as cultural variations in some of the ancient societies, as amongst Mohave Indians (US) and the latmul community (New Guinea) this form of clothing (cross-dressing) is not accepted by a majority of the modern societies (Friedman, and Downey, 2008). Here it must be remembered that transvestites do not wish to cross-dress as a disguise, or for theatrical acts, but their clothing is an end in itself, and tend to reveal their sexual orientation. Thus, the very act of their wearing clothes of the opposite gender is their only form of sexual release or expression (Friedman, and Downey, 2008). Sexual orientation is generally viewed as being different from the issues of gender identity; however, taking into consideration the provisions made within international human rights law, gender identity is now included within the concept of sexual orientation. 2.3 Religion The relationship that exists between religion, culture, and dress is interesting to the social researchers as it provides a window to the varying aspects of social world where culture and tradition plays an important role in deciding the dress code of a society. Amongst many of the world religions there is a common belief that that clothing is an important part of religious identity, and dressing correctly (as per religious dictates) acts as an efficient mode of nonverbal communication (Richardson, 2004). Religious clothing in many societies is often held as sacred and secular, while some religions consider garments as sacred, hence the prescription of dress code. Dresses which are used for religious ceremonies and rituals is termed as ecclesiastical dress, and often certain of the dress items that are considered especially sacred, become symbolic for that particular religion. Therefore under such conditions, where religion plays an important role within a society and dictates dress codes, clothing turns into a visible indicator of how well a person fits into his or her religious and social order. The dress code as put into place by religious groups can also be used for facilitating various social and ideological agendas (Damhorst, Miller, and Michelman, 1999). Global immigrations in the recent times have led to the development of multiculturalism, where there is a worldwide amalgamation of different faiths and religions, which has resulted in a kind of multi-faith society. Owing to this creation of a multicultural society and increase in worldwide religion based terror groups, religious clothing has now turned into a sensitive subject, and most of the nations have established various laws that target religious outfits, like a ban on the wearing of veils by Muslim women in public places or wearing of turbans by the Sikh religious group (Arthur, 2000). 2.4 Ethnic identity Clothing acts as a key factor in identifying the ethnicity of an individual and there exists a close relationship between ethnic identity and clothing. Individuals having ethnic lineage tend to use ethnic fashion magazines and fashion shows as sources for acquiring their typical ethnic dresses (Brouwer, 2006). Ethnic identity is a category that is determined by the attributes associated with a particular community, while the self-esteem and deep rooted values about culture and ethnicity are reflected in clothing behavior of an individual. In the era of globalization, however this may not be true with second generation immigrants who are influenced by the atmosphere that surrounds them from their childhood, and their original ethnic identities may sometimes be dominated by the identity of their social surroundings, a position often referred to as ‘in-between cultures’ by social theorists (Brouwer, 2006). People believe that ethnicity is reflected in clothing, and certain styles of clothing are associated with ethnicity. Identifying a particular race is often possible through their clothing; however this assumption may not always hold true. 2.5 Symbolism in clothing In a general sense, fashion, clothing and presenting oneself appropriately, have become important in all modern communities (Gecas & Burke, 1995). It has now become important to examine the impact of clothing along with other appearance related issues in everyday life, both at micro and macro levels. Here the micro level focuses at an individual level, whereas the macro level represents the societal and cultural levels at large. Various research studies have reported that individuals now tend to make use of appearance and clothing related symbols to develop and sustain their stand and power within society and establish strong personal identities based on clothing (Hijmans, 2003). There are various evidences collected by various social researchers where it has been seen that appearance and clothing related symbols are used by individuals at societal, cultural and personal levels, for enhancing self-images and social standing (Choudary, 2008). 3 Conclusions Many people view clothing as being purely of functional value and of little attraction, and they attach very little interest to it; on the other hand there are others who feel clothing plays an important part through which they can express their pent up feelings, and is a way to seek pleasure. Clothing for some may appear like a challenge, for some it may be an area of study and interest, while for some it may even be the means for livelihood. However, in whatever manner one views clothing, it cannot be denied that social and personal relationships are directly influenced by the clothes one wears and the message they convey to the observer. The manner in which a person dresses can affect the image of that person, and clothing is a specific way where one can express himself or herself. Clothing is a form of nonverbal communication, and therefore a reflection of the person who wears it. Being a ‘social animal,’ human beings tend make a conscious effort in choosing his or her clothing, in an effort to maintain his or her identity, and these identities may be self-directed or directed by others. Individuals choose clothing to express their self-image and communicate their values to others. These are the behavioral residues through which the observer assumes some impressions of the personality. Within society, the social appropriateness of clothing varies between men and women, and this continues in the western society even though now there is more flexibility in clothing, in terms of gender identity. Sexual orientation is expressed through some stereotypical clothing behavior (cross-dressing), while religious clothing expresses the wearer’s beliefs in his or her religion, and clothing symbolism is followed by individuals who wish to identify themselves in a specific group of their choice. Thus, it is quite evident that clothing of a wearer is closely associated with the various aspects of social and personal identities of that individual. Reference Appadurai, A. (1990). Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy. Public Culture, 2 1-24. Arthur, L. (2000). 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