Key Components in the Study of Human Behavior - Essay Example

Psychology Question One Introduction Behaviourism, psychoanalysis and humanism are key components in the study of human behavior. The perspectives are characterized by different modes of human behavior description but some aspects are similar. A notable distinction and a number of similarities exist among the three perspectives. The psychoanalytic theory was formulated by Sigmund Freud. He mounts his assumptions on the belief that human overt and cognitive behavior is driven by needs and wants for example the need of basic necessities. According to Freud, human behavior is governed by cognitive psychic forces that are beyond human control. An individual’s personality is nurtured right from childhood with the interplay of conflicting drives and ideals or morals during the different stages of development. Childhood experiences later on define human behavior. Freud profiled the nature of human beings as being irrational and destructive (DeRobertis, 2012). Behaviorism was developed by scientists who were opposed to the psychoanalytic perspective. Behaviorists argue that unconscious cannot be studied because experimental procedures can only be applied on parameters that can be observed. Therefore, they concluded that only behavior can be studied scientifically since it is observable. According to the behaviorist perspective, development of human behavior is a learning process. Human beings adopt specific behaviors if the results of behaving in that manner are positive. Therefore, behaviors that result in negative implications are avoided and are conditioned by environmental factors. Humanism opposes the scientific approach to the study of human behavior developed by behaviorists and the provisions of the psychoanalytic theory. The humanist theory states that human beings develop behavioral characteristics independent of external influences. The humanist perspective suggests that people have an inbuilt drive that compels them to make the world they live in favorable for their existence. Humanists like Abraham Maslow viewed human beings on a positive perspective seeing them as being optimistic as opposed to Freud’s pessimistic opinion on human nature. Despite being diverse, the humanist, behaviorist and the psychoanalytic perspectives still share some common aspects in the psychological study of human nature. The perspectives conform to different study approaches but all of them try to explain human behavior. Development of behavior is expressed as procedural process in all the perspectives and the emphasis of the importance of human behavioral development is also brought out in the different psychological approaches to human psychology. Conclusion The study of human behaviour is encompassed by different approaches each trying to explain the nature of human beings. Humanism is based on the assumption that human beings make decisions independently and are able to initiate different behavioral trends in this manner. Behaviorism is based on scientific perspectives and insists that human behavior is shaped by prevalent environmental factors. Finally, the psychoanalytic perspective is based on development from childhood and the psychic nature. Question Two Introduction Dreaming is an involuntary cognitive phenomenon that usually occurs during sleep. People tend to dream about their personal experiences and emotions, thoughts and the images they envision while asleep. The images, emotions and thoughts evident in dreams are usually vivid and vague making it difficult to comprehend or understand them. For this reason, philosophers have been compelled to advance studies towards the establishment of possible explanations to the nature of dreams and the reasons for dreaming. As a result various theories have been brought up to explain the nature of dreams. The Psychoanalytic Theory of Dreams The psychoanalytic theory is consistent with psychoanalysis which is one of the perspectives developed towards the explanation of human behavior. It was developed by Sigmund Freud. Freud’s theory suggests that dreams are manifestations of unconscious or cognitive thoughts, desires and motivations. According to the theory, human action is influenced by sexual instincts and aggressive aspirations that are in the unconscious and not in the conscious awareness. Freud’s suggestion is that the unconscious desires and instincts are generated into dreams where they find their way out of the unconscious part of the mind into conscious awareness (Caifang, 2013). The Activation-Synthesis Model of Dreaming The theory was formulated by Allan Hobson and Robert McClarley. According to the theory, during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, brain circuits are activated resulting into the activation of the limbic system in the thalamus of the brain. The limbic system is responsible for sensations, emotions and memories. Once the circuits are activated, the brain processes and interprets the cranial activities in an attempt to translate the resulting signals into comprehensible meanings. These processes result to dreaming. Therefore, the activation-synthesis model suggests that dreams are cognitive interpretations of signals that are generated by the brain during sleep. The Information-Processing Theory This theory explains how information is received, integrated, processed and accessed in the human brain. According to the theory, dreams are products of the information-processing processes in the brain. A further suggestion outlines that dreams may as well be part of the cranial information-processing procedures. For instance, human beings engage in a lot of activities and encounter lots of information during their daily activities. When humans sleep, the brain creates impressions and images of the processes going on in the brain as a result of the daytime engagements. Conclusion Dreaming is a mysterious process and several explanations have been formulated to solve the mystery behind them. Different concepts have been formulated to explain the possible reasons why people dream. All the theories agree that dreaming is a mental process and involves specific images, thoughts and personal desires. Question Three Observational learning takes place when individuals develop new concepts by watching and imitating what the people they look up to are doing or what the environment around them teaches them. The learning process is common especially among children. For instance, a child learns how to walk by observing the way adults do the working. An employee that has seen a colleague being fired would avoid the mistake that resulted in the firing of the co-worker. Observational learning is positive when learners are exposed to desirable deeds and is negative when individuals observe primitive behaviors (Hoover, Giambatista & Belkin, 2012). Operant and classical conditioning are examples of learning theories that explain how human beings develop certain norms or ways of doing things. Classical conditioning establishes an association between a specific stimuli and the response. Therefore, the stimulus causes the subject to behave in a certain manner. Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences that relate to specific actions. The consequences may involve punishments. Observational learning is related to both operant and classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, for an individual to comprehend the relationship between a certain stimulus and a given course of action, observation must take place. A common example is the experiments done on dogs by Ivan Pavlov. The dogs learn to salivate when exposed to the site of food. Food is then presented to the dogs after a bell is rung and they learn to associate the ringing of the bell and the presentation of food. From observation, the dogs learn to respond to the bells by salivating as a result of previous instances where food is presented immediately the bell is rung. Operant conditioning also relies on observational learning. Operant conditioning involves reinforcements which strengthen positive behaviors and punishments which discourage primitive behaviors. Reinforcements include rewarding good behavior. Therefore, if an individual observes that a certain action is results into the issuance of a reward, he or she tends to stick to such behaviors. Conversely, when an individual observes that certain behaviors result in punishments, they avoid such actions. Therefore, individuals have to observe the implications of particular actions for them to choose how to behave. Question Four The Key Properties of Language Communication Language allows human beings to pass specific information. Therefore, an individual is able to express mental thoughts into words that are understandable to others. Communication is the initial reason why the human language was developed. Displacement Human language can be used to describe things that are not present visually. Children are exposed to displacement through questions for example asking them where certain people are. Such a question can be answered without the visual evidence of where the specified person is. Displacement gives language its validity whether the subject of discussion is visually present or not. Arbitrariness Under this property lies the understanding that the correlation between written and spoken language is not guaranteed. Some words are pronounced differently from the way they are written. Arbitrariness is common in words that have silent letters that are excluded during pronunciation (Kudlek & Flick, 2014). Discreteness The property emphasizes on the understanding that words are constituted by symbols and sounds whereby symbols are syllables and letters. When used independently, the symbols lack tangible meaning. However, the symbols and sounds are considered as being vital for word formation even though they seem to have less importance when they are not incorporated into words. Cultural Transmission Human beings can use language as a means of passing educative information to the upcoming generations. The newer generations are introduced to the different concepts and aspects of humanity. The learning that is brought about through language ensures the continuity of the norms and deeds that the human generation has already learned and adopted. Language is Systematic Cognitive ideas, emotions and thoughts are communicated in an orderly manner through the human language. What this means is that the use of language is regulated by specific rules that stipulate the lingual words or symbols that can be combined sensibly. The combination of some lingual elements may not be acceptable because the resulting phrases may not have acceptable meanings. Therefore, language conforms to a systematic format that must be followed for effectiveness to be achieved. References DeRobertis, E. M. (2012). Third Force Psychology and Child Psychology: A Convergence of Horizons. Humanistic Psychologist, 40(1), 58-78. doi:10.1080/08873267.2012.643689 Caifang, Z. (2013). Jung on the Nature and Interpretation of Dreams: A Developmental Delineation with Cognitive Neuroscientific Responses. Behavioral Sciences (2076-328X), 3(4), 662-675. doi:10.3390/bs3040662 Hoover, J. D., Giambatista, R. C., & Belkin, L. Y. (2012). Eyes On, Hands On: Vicarious Observational Learning as an Enhancement of Direct Experience. Academy Of Management Learning & Education, 11(4), 591-608. doi:10.5465/amle.2010.0102 Kudlek, M., & Flick, N. E. (2014). Properties of Languages with Catenation and Shuffle. Fundamenta Informaticae, 129(1/2), 117-132. doi:10.3233/FI-2014-964 Read More