The Various Attachment Theories - Essay Example

? The Attachment Theories in Childhood Introduction Attachment refers to a lifelong emotional bond between twopeople, especially affection ties between significant others. Attachment theories spotlight psychological tendency to look for closeness to another person for security, and to experience uneasiness when that person is absent. However, attachment does not have to be necessarily reciprocal. Attachment is exhibited by certain behaviour in children such as seeking proximity with the attachment figure when disturbed or threatened. Attachment theories are useful in the study of infant behaviours as well as in the fields of child health. Attachment theories assume that humans are social beings. Attachment Theories The various attachment theories include the cognitive view of attachment, which centres on the contention that infants must develop concepts of object permanence prior to attachment. The approach holds that if children are upset about the absence of the caregivers, they must have perceived that the caregivers continue to exist. The behavioural view of attachment centres on the caregiver as reinforcer. Behaviourists hold that attachment behaviours are learned through conditioning (Gabbard, Judith & Holmes 2007, p.7). The approach stipulates that, in the process of caring for children and provision of physiological needs, the children associate their caregivers with gratification. Therefore, the caregiver becomes a conditioned reinforcer. The overriding theme in attachment theories is that mothers or caregivers, who are responsible for the provision of various needs to the infants, institute a sense of security in their children (Gabbard, Judith & Holmes 2007, p. 7). As a result, the infants become aware that the caregiver is dependable, which translates into a secure base that allows the child to explore the world. Psychoanalytic View of Attachment: Caregiver as Love Object Psychoanalysts perceive the development of attachment entirely different from behaviourist’s point of view. Psychoanalysts perceive the caregiver as a love object who shapes the basis for all later attachments. Nevertheless, psychoanalysts and behaviourists agree that the caregiver’s role in gratifying the child’s needs is paramount. Freud, the pioneer of psychoanalytic theory, held that the emotional attachment of the child to the caregiver arises from the fact that the caregiver is the primary satisfier of the child’s needs (Goldberg, Muir & Kerr 2000, p.46). On the other hand, Erik Erickson holds that the first year is decisive for the child to developing a sense of trust in the caregiver. He also stipulated that the mother’s sensitivity to the child’s needs cultivates development of trust and attachment. Discussion John Bowlby (1969) pioneered attachment theory whereby he described attachment as an enduring psychological connectedness between two human beings. Bowlby held that the initial bonds constructed by children with their caregivers’ yield an incredible impact, strong enough to last their entire life. Bowlby also held that the attachment serves to unite the infant with the mother thus enhancing the child’s chances of survival. According to Bowlby, attachment is adaptive, and the finest development of attachment occurs in environments of safety, whereby affect resonance and attachment communications between the child and the caregiver are vital (Goldberg, Muir & Kerr 2000, p.47). Harlow’s View of Attachment: Caregiver as a Source of Contact and Comfort Bowlby’s work inspired Harlows’ series of experiments on rhesus monkeys. The psychologist probed the effects of maternal separation and social isolation. The experiments articulated the significance of caregiving and companionship in both cognitive and social development of the child. Harlow also demonstrated that attachment is not entirely based on reliance on food (Goldberg, Muir & Kerr 2000, p.48). Components of Attachment Children develop diverse styles of attachment depending on the experiences and interactions they have with their caregivers. Their components of attachment comprise of haven, whereby children find refuge in caregivers whenever they feel threatened or terrified. There is also secure base in which the caregiver offers a safe and dependable platform for the child to explore the environment. Proximity maintenance, on the other hand, revolves around the child always striving to stay close to the caregiver in order to feel safe. Lastly, separation distress is experienced due to the child’s separation from the caregiver. Alienation of the child from the mother causes disturbance and anxiety. In assessing attachment during childhood, researchers have developed assorted ways of appraising attachment during childhood; they comprise of Strange Situation Protocol and standardized interviews, questionnaires, and tests such as Attachment Story Competition (Bornstein 2008, p.51). Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation” Mary Ainsworth expanded upon Bowlby’s work by pioneering studies that revealed the weighty effect of attachment on behaviour. The study centered on children between the ages of 12 and 18 months; children were briefly alienated from their mothers before reunion (Goldberg, Muir and Kerr 2000, p.49). Attachment Styles in Children Based on observations made on children behaviours, Ainsworth outlined three significant modes of attachment; secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment, and avoidant-insecure attachment. Each of the attachment style reflected certain kinds of attachment relationships between the child and the parents. In 1986, researchers Main and Solomon introduced disorganized- insecure attachment. Ever since Ainsworth’s initial research, most of the studies in this area have affirmed Ainsworth’s attachment styles. Consequently, the studies have also confirmed that the stated attachment styles have a profound effect on behaviours in later life (Mash & Wolfe 2010, p.178). Characteristics of the Patterns of Attachment Secure Attachment Securely attached children display distress when alienated from their caregivers and are pleased when their caregiver returns. The children feel secure in the company of their caregivers and are dependent on the caregivers. A securely attached child explores unreservedly when the caregiver is present and engages with strangers, but is visibly upset when the caregiver departs. Nevertheless, the child is cheerful to see the return of the caregiver. Departure of the caregiver heralds distress on the children, even though they remain confident that the parent or the caregiver will come back. If threatened, securely attached children seek comfort and reassurance from the caregivers. The provision of assistance reinforces the sense of security in the child and gives the child ideas on how to tackle the difficulty in the future (Mash & Wolfe 2010, p. 179). Securely attached children are aware of a secure base to find shelter in the episodes of rapprochement or times of need. Secure attachment can be described as the most adaptive attachment style. Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment Ambivalent attached children habitually become exceedingly distressed when the parent or caregiver leaves. The child is hesitant even with the return of the caregiver. The child also seeks to remain close to the caregiver resentfully. The child also displays resistance when the caregiver initiates attention. Children who exhibit anxious–resistant attachment style are particularly nervous to exploring and anxious when in the company of strangers, irrespective of the presence of the caregiver (Mash & Wolfe 2010, p. 181). Although relatively rare, ambivalent attachment results from poor maternal or caregiver availability. Therefore, ambivalent attached children cannot depend on their parents or caregiver to be available, especially when they are in need. Anxious-Avoidant insecure Attachment Avoidant–insecure children usually tend to avoid or ignore the parents or caregivers. The children exhibit modest emotion when the caregiver departs or returns. In addition, the children are unwilling to explore the environment. When offered a choice, children with avoidant attachment do not exhibit any preference between a caregiver and a stranger. Children with anxious-avoidant attachment do not show a lot of emotional range whether in the company of others or not (Mash & Wolfe 2010, p.182). Research on this topic reveals that the occurrence of this attachment stems from disengaged care giving, and exposure of the child to abuse or neglect by the caregivers. Hence, children who are penalized for depending on parents or caregivers will most likely evade seeking help from the caregivers in the future. This is because the child comes to believe that communication of needs is inconsequential to the parents or caregivers. Mary Main and Solomon’s Disorganized Attachment This style of attachment incorporates the deficiency of a reliable style or pattern for coping. Whereas avoidant and ambivalent styles of attachment may fail effective test, the two styles avail strategies for which the child can utilize when dealing with the world. Children who exhibit disorganized attachment view their caregivers as either frightened or frightening. In disorganized attachment, the interactions between the child and the caregiver are normally inconsistent, which precipitate lack of concise interactive templates. Hence, the child is provided with an inconsistent model from which to mirror the self or the situation (Goodyer 2011, p. 36). Attachment Theory in Clinical Practice The failure to develop proper attachment with caregivers during childhood may lead to attachment disorders. The resultant disorders may also have adverse effects throughout the lifespan of the individual. Nevertheless, the attachment problems can be resolved through proper therapeutic interventions such as Theraplay. The interventions aid parents as well as children in building healthier interactions and attachment relationships (Bornstein 2008, p.50). Research done in this area indicates that failure to develop secure attachments early in life exposes the child to negative behaviours manifested in later childhood and throughout life. Many children diagnosed with opposition defiant disorder or posttraumatic stress disorder repeatedly display attachment problems. The insecure attachment may have arisen from the child’s exposure to early abuse, abandonment or trauma. The problems occasioned by insecure attachments have informed clinicians’ assertion that children adopted while six months are predisposed to risk of attachment problems (Goodyer 2011, p. 37). Key Assumptions of Attachment Theory Attachment behaviours are adaptive and enhance the ability of individuals to survive. In addition, the theory holds that the development of attachment is shaped at certain phases in life. The preference of the children towards their caregivers is not inherent since the children shape the need for attachment out of experiences with the caregiver (Bornstein 2008, p.50). Attachment theories also stipulate that children develop hierarchical relationships, which differ across persons since some are close and others strained. In addition, the theory stipulates that the attachment to caregiver is shaped by the provision of needs and compassion during social interactions. The theory also stipulates that later experiences with caregivers coalesce to shape the child’s thoughts, expectations, emotions, memories as well as behaviours about self and others. Lastly, attachment theory holds that unrelenting separation from a caregiver or incessant changes of the caregiver may frustrate formation of adaptive attachment behaviours. Consequently, insecure attachments manifest as problems later in life (Bornstein 2008, p.51). Critique of Attachment Theory One of the criticisms of attachment theory is grounded in the debate on nature versus nurture. Critics argue that the theory leans too much towards the assumption of nurture. The critics hold that caregivers have minimal influence on the child’s personality or character. Attachment theory is also criticized for suggesting a preoccupation with maternal relationships. Critics argue that the preoccupation marginalizes other essential factors such as genetic predisposition, cultural child-rearing practices, sibling status, and peer-group influences among others (Goodyer 2011, p.38). The Importance of Attachment in Childhood Attachment establishes the foundation for the child’s later social, emotional, and cognitive development. In addition, attachment has an immense bearing on the feelings, motives, thoughts and relationships all the way through an individual’s life. Attachment in childhood is critical to the formation and maintenance of relationships. Socially competent individuals are more inclined to have better relationships and subsequent social standing (Thompson & Henderson 2011, p.39). Individuals who develop secure attachment during childhood demonstrate more dedication, trust, and satisfaction in romantic relationships compared to those with insecure attachments. Similarly, individuals who developed secure attachments during childhood are able to triumph over problems in relationships. Secure attachment during childhood translates into enduring relationships be it business or romantic relationships. The development of secure attachments in childhood promotes the formation of a sense of security, and this reduces stress levels. This enhances the likelihood of the individual to engage in altruistic and pro-social behaviour. Studies conducted in this area indicate that individuals with avoidant attachment have a weak predisposition to engage in philanthropic activities since insecure attachments hamper empathy. Secure attachment during childhood also enhances development of candour, authenticity, honesty, and emotional regulation (Rutter 2002, p. 364). Secure attachment in childhood is essential since it pre-empts or lowers the onset of psychiatric disorders later in life. A child is susceptible to development of psychiatric disorders after the loss of an attachment figure. Insecure attachments in childhood predispose the child to react in a hostile manner to their environment (Sigelman & Rider 2012, p. 464). Children with severe attachment disorders mostly consider themselves as undeserving in the eyes of the caregiver. Since attachment theory centres on children’s early relationships, which affects their development and competence to form later relationships, the theory is critical to those who work with children in care. Attachment theory is critical to those caring for foster children to avoid compromising the children’s development (Rutter 2002, p. 363). Knowledge provided by attachment theory is crucial in determining when contact is beneficial to the child experiencing dislocated relationships. Attachment theory is also essential in informing decisions concerning child placement and care. The formation of secure attachment during childhood is also imperative in development of self-esteem in the child. Securely attached children have a strong self-concept demonstrated by a willingness to acknowledge positive attributes about themselves (Sigelman & Rider 2012, p. 463). In cases of insecure attachment, the children are predisposed to low self-esteem later in life. In addition, insecure attachment during childhood exposes children to having a weak capability for independence in later life. In summary, research done in this area indicates that secure attachment is a protective factor that facilitates finest developmental outcomes. Insecure attachments among children predispose them to social and maladjustment problems. Similarly, children who develop disorganized attachment are more inclined to the risk for psychopathology. Children who receive positive affection and nurturing from their caregivers have an enhanced chance of a healthy development. Children who have had a consistent and caring relationship during early years of life will most likely have improved ability to cope with stress, improved academic grades, healthier behaviours, and more positive peer interactions (Thompson & Henderson 2011, p. 40). Children who develop insecure attachments or disorganized attachments are more probable to have a life characterized by low trust since the feeling of insecurity may become part of the child’s base feeling. The base feeling that the child possesses shapes his/ her understanding of the world. How Attachments affect a person in their Life Attachment has a profound effect on the emotional development of the child. Attachment in this case represents an instinctive system that pursues the child’s needs. Early attachments in life have a phenomenal influence on later development. Attachments, during childhood, contribute to a wide range of individual differences that may occur later in life. This may be in aspects such as cognition, behaviour, social skills, emotional responses, and personality. The experiences that the child undergoes during childhood stimulate and organize patterns of structural growth that may yield an enhanced functional capacity for the child (Kagan 2004, p. 74). Attachment theories have made substantial inroads in demystifying the notion of early experience. Early experiences with the caregivers shape the child’s generalized expectations as well as beliefs (working models) on critical aspects such as self, the world, and relationships. The Question on whether Insecure Attachments can be repaired Consistent and expectable patterns of interaction between a child and the caregiver are critical for early development of the child. Nevertheless, insecure attachments and disorganized attachments may develop due to inconsistent interactions between the child and the caregiver. The disconnection that ensues between the child and the caregiver in terms of interaction and relationship formation can be repaired or reconnected. However, avoidant attached children possess a slim margin of success in reestablishment of connection between the caregiver and the child. The caregiver should help the child to express his/ her needs freely (Kagan 2004, p. 75). The employment of effective therapeutic interventions enables the caregiver to respond to the child’s attachment needs sensitively. The prime focus should be raising the resilience of the child to counter the attachment difficulties. Psychologists have fashioned warning signs, symptoms, and treatment to children exhibiting insecure attachment in life. This has mainly been informed by extensive research in the specialty of development of attachment in children. Psychologists probe how the child expresses and manages emotions and develops relationships as well as the child’s development to discern attachment problems (Barish 2009, p. 32). For instance, children with attachment disorder such as reactive attachment disorder may exhibit defiance, indifference, and opposition to attempts made to connect with the child. Children with attachment difficulties feel unsafe and alone. The repairing of attachment problems calls for employment of the right tools coupled with dedication, patience, and love. In repairing of attachment disorders, caregivers should be aware that safety is a critical issue for the child since they are distrustful to the world and feel insecure in the world (Kagan 2004, p.76). Therefore, the caregiver should concentrate on restoring the child’s sense of security. This can be achieved through the establishment of concise conventions of behaviour as well as consistent responses to the child’s needs. Dependable and caring boundaries make the world seem more predictable and less frightening to children suffering from attachment problems. In addition to making the child feel safe and secure, the caregiver should also put efforts in making the child feel loved by aiding the child in identification of emotions and expression of needs. Similarly, the caregiver should also endeavour to support the child’s health. This helps to reduce associated stress levels and levels out mood swings, which may be prevalent in children with attachment problems (Kagan 2004, p. 78). Lastly, the caregiver may pursue professional treatment of attachment problems, which mainly incorporates therapy, counselling, and parenting education (Barish 2009, p.34). The treatment is critical in promoting of a secure living environment, structuring of positive interactions with the caregivers as well as promotion of peer relationships. Medication in this case may be directed at treating conditions such as depression, anxiety, or hyperactivity. Conclusion The importance of development of secure attachment in early childhood cannot be underrated. The development of secure attachments during childhood is significant to the safety and comfort of the child, especially later in life. Whereas attachment styles displayed in adulthood differ from the ones in childhood, early attachments have a critical bearing on later relationships in life. For instance, most of the people who were securely attached in childhood are more inclined to have a high self-esteem and well developed romantic relationships as well as a strong capability to self-disclose to others. References List Barish, K. (2009). Emotions in child Psychotherapy: An integrative framework, Oxford, Oxford University Press. pp. 32-34. Bornstein, M. (2008). Handbook of parenting: Children and parenting, Volume 1, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 50-51. Gabbard, G., Judith, B. & Holmes, J. (2007). Oxford theory of Psychotherapy, Oxford, Oxford University Press. p.7. Goldberg, S., Muir, R. & Kerr, J. (2000). Attachment Theory: Social, developmental, and clinical perspectives, New York, Analytic. pp. 46-49. Goodyer, A . (2011). Child-centred foster care: A rights-based model for practice, London, Jessica Kingsley. pp. 36-38. Kagan, R. (2004). Rebuilding attachments with traumatized children: Healing from losses, violence, abuse, and neglect, New York, Haworth Press. pp. 74-78. Mash, E. & Wolfe, D. (2010). Abnormal child Psychology, Belmont, Wadsworth. pp.178-182. Rutter, M. (2002). Child and adolescent, Oxford, Blackwell Science. pp. 326-364. Sigelman, C. & Rider, E. (2012). Life-span human development, Belmont, Wadsworth. Pp. 463-464. Thompson, C. & Henderson, D. (2011). Counseling children, Belmont, Wadsworth. pp.39-40. Read More