Hinduism, History of Christian Thought, and Greek Philosophy - Research Paper Example

?Krishna and his forms A study of the religious scriptures in Hindu mythology reveals various forms of Krishna and its simultaneous worships. The figures of Krishna as the supreme manifestation of power have been portrayed in every form. Three levels of Krishna mythology have been evident from the study of religious doctrines. The oldest and the most popular form of Krishna are evident in the oldest core of the Mahabharata. In Mahabharata Krishna is depicted as the son of the Vasudeva and Devaki. In Mahabharata Krishna has been portrayed to belong from the Yadava society and plays an instrumental part in the war of Kurukshetra where he served as the charioteer of Arjuna. In the expanded version of Mahabharata we find Krishna as the incarnation of Vishnu and the wisdoms of the Bhagwad Gita, The holy book of the Hindu’s are proclaimed through him. The form of incarnation of Visnu was found after 300 B.C.E which is popularly known as the early Hindu period. After 200 C.E. Krishna is depicted as the cowherd of Vrindavana and symbolizes as the passionate lover of Gopis and Radha in particular. This depiction of character of Krishna is found in Harivamsa and Vishnu purana. Other than a passionate lover Krishna he is portrayed as a slayer of demons. However in the Pre Aryan period there is no evidence of worship of Krishna. The first two images of Krishna as the chief of Yadava and the reincarnation of lord Vishnu settled from the area of Dwarka to Mathura. However the form of Krishna as the cowherd of Vrindavana is not there in the Bhagwat Gita. The divine power of Krishna is evident in the Vishnu purana from his childhood where he demolishes various demons encountered by him. In Viishnu Purana however Krishna is not portrayed to take part in the war nor is a teacher of Gita. (Hopkins, p 99-104) The different form of Krishna often raises confusion. But the portrayal of Krishna in different forms in different era of Hindu mythology stresses on the fact that the presence of Krishna is there as a form of good source of energy and its presence cannot be ignored. The idea of re-incarnation of Vishnu as Krishna also is based on the same propositions as Vishnu is claimed to have ten other avatars. The Hindus have handled the different adaptations oh Krishna but worships them as a single force of power. The importance of historical study is important in understanding the theology of Hindu. The different forms of Krishna and its significance can be clearly understood by studying the different religious chronicle in different times of history. The division of Hindu mythology is also very vast and should be studied minutely to have a clear understanding of the proceedings. The depiction of varied character of Krishna in Vishnu purana and Gita shows considerable link between them and helps to conclude that both of the characters are of the same person. Worksheet -15 1. The teachings of Athanasius were held as harsh by the church of Alexandaeria. His teachings tried to pry matters outside his domain which made him look unpopular. However his teachings were in favor of the council of Nicaea. He also used homousious and he believed that the divinity of the worlds would not have been possible by the divine participation of god. His meltian opponents were Eusebius and Arsenius. He exiled to Trier to prevail peace between the church and the east and the rise of the hostility with the opponents. He refused to attend many types of council as charges would be stacked against him. (Frend, 524) 2. The council of Sardica took place under a series of events. Constantine was governing the empire and he himself murdered his wife Fusta. The eastern frontier on the other hand was managed by his nephew. Constantine used his administrative skills to manage the empire. The importance of the council lies in the fact that the three brothers who were ruling had different views. Constantine II and Constants promoted the views of Nicaea whereas Constantius was guided by the view of Eusebi. In order to prevent the difference of view and reach a solution the council was important. (Frend, 528) 3. The schism of 345-53 was prevented by drawing up a lengthy document in which both sides clarified their positions. Common views were established with the spread of idea that acknowledged Christ as the likeliness in all things. The Easterners detailed out the reason for rejection of Marcellus. Compromising views were also found from the west. The role played by Constantiu’s was significant in maintaining the unifying position of the church. His interpretation of the doctrine of Christianity avoided the explanation of controversial terms and he followed in close adherence to the scriptural definition of Christ to give rise to any sort of disputes. (Frend, 532) 4. The difference in ideas as portrayed in the letter was evident between the East and the West. There was more number of Western Bishops. The Eastern Bishops on the other hand were accompanied by the presence of imperial officers which was not prevalent in the state. The counts were also staying in the imperial residence within the city and they emphasized on the integration of the church. There was no presence of agreement and the easterners held opposition in meeting with the Marcellus. (Frend, 536) 5. In order to strengthen Christianity he even propagated the idea of Christianity among the Roman merchant colonies. He invited a mission among the pagan Goths to serve themselves for the sake of the religion. He even sent his men in Southeastern Arabia for influencing the people to switch over to Christianity. (Frend, 538) 6. The second creed of Sirmium laid down the proposition that there was the presence of one almighty god and Christ is his only son who is the savior of this world and there are no two Gods. In the doctrine there was no idea of homoiousios and the debate which took over regarding the greatness of the father or son as stopped. The absence of anthemas in the doctrine also reflects the unifying creed. (Frend, 539) 7. The councils at Arimnum and Seleucia helped a lot in the spread of overall Christianity. The presence of a huge number of Bishops glorified the event. The different palce of meetings showed the popularity which Christianity had created over the twenty years. After trying various alternatives, Ariminum and Nicaea evolved as the statements of faith. Athanasius view of Constantius was not great at al. He believed Constantius as anti-Christian. He held him worse than Ahab and Saul. He even held him as irreligious and become disloyal of him. Hilary also raised opposition against the empire. He reflected his views through writings and even Hilary declared him to be anti Christian. Lucifer of Cagliari directly attacked Constantius and the tradition of hatred against him was popular in the western church. (Frend, 540) 8. Eusebius had connection with Constantine at various points of his life. He had innumerable manuscripts and works of Origen with him. After the persecution many bibles were destroyed and the Constantine asked for the replacement of the scribes from Eusebius. He visited Jerusalem and worked in the library of Bishop Alexander and he discovered other manuscripts over there. From the collection of his manuscripts he composed a pioneer work. His work comprised of creating the history of Orthodox Church. Hs two major works were the Preparation of the Gospel, and the demonstration of the Gospel. His documentation has been genuine. (Chadwick, 194) 9. Arius was the popular presbyter of Bishop Alexander of Alexandria. His subordinates held the view that was against the doctrine of Iraneus. Uraneus believed that it is possible for god only to realize the presence of another god and that only the creator of mankind can help us in redemption. His doctrine also stretched on the point that one who is in search for salvation cannot save the world. The term used by the Council of Nicaea to describe Arius position was homoousios. They offended Arius and forced them to communion after his refusal to sign but on the contrary they were allowed to recover the favor. (Chadwick, 196) 10. The origin of Constantine is an important piece of text and it is importance lies in the fact that it was the earliest and probably the first biography of Constantine, the first emperor in the Christian regime. In the text the author provides us with information regarding the political and the military legitimacy apart from his religious views. In the text we get a clear emphasis regarding the military hardness and abstinence of the emperor. On the contrary the life of Constantine is a pure blend of biography with sacred history. The biography links up between the economic, political revitalization of Constantine and the triumph of Christianity as a religion as portrayed by Eusebius. Constantine provided preferential treatment with the Christians. He made considerable among the poor and provided them with food, money and clothing. Those who even spoke harshly against him were not protested and he provided no resilience against them. (Ehrman, 35) Worksheet-16 1. The synthesis between the old and new was witnessed by the sons of the Constantine. Significant synthesis was evident in the forms of culture. In the mid forth century the new generation artist used the help of the age old traditional pagan past to depict the Christian teaching. The classical biblical approach was taken to educate the people with Christianity. The traditions which were followed in the arrangement of the funeral and the accompanying of the soul remained the same. The practice followed by the church in marriage was still unaccepted by a large section of the society. (Frend, 554) 2. In the Christian centers the Bishops role became dominant. The number of churches in Jerusalem was more than the public buildings and the presence of Bassilican churches were more. Developments of exclusive Christian centers were seen in large extent. The donation in charitable funds influenced the growth of the Christian centers. The centers turned out to be a center of pilgrimage. Some of the Christian centers were huge in area and almost covered an area up to 5460 square meters which comprised of a large basilica and had 120 rooms (Frend, 557-558) 3. Women played a crucial role in religion during the 4th century. The role was more evident from the section of educated women. The women took a part to help the poor which in-turn favored Christianity. Strong minded women formed the backbone of the churches in the fourth century. The women received the Christian teachings open heartedly and even had an influential effect on their husbands. The two most popular women of the era were Celerina and Monica. (Frend, 561-562) 4. The spread of Christianity became evident in the West. It speeded in a rapid manner and reached Roman Britain and roman Africa. Through the words of Jerome it became clear when he said that in his childhood he used to visit tombs and apostles with his friends. In celebration they used Christ’s holy gift to present to people. The pagan classical culture was slowly submerged in Christianity. Most of the evidences regarding the popularity were gathered from the Roman Britain’s. The presence of Cemetery near Poundbury rings in the mid-fourth century provides the evidence. The reason for the popularity of spread of Christianity was due to sufficient number of illiterate people and Christianization also enabled people to gain additional benefits in their daily course of life. Another point which has been traced out is the popularity of the Churches heroic past. (Frend 564) 5. Superstition was one of the major factors for transfer from paganism into Christianity. It was popular in the society. On the one hand astrology was popular as science and sorcery was much feared all over. People opted for various measures to protect them from evil force. Christianity put an end to cross magic and witchcrafts. Pilgrimage became popular and Rome and Palestine were the popular destinations. And Jerusalem became the major source of attraction. The strength of attraction of asceticism also grew considerably. Small groups of Gnotics and Marcionites were present among Christianity. It was instrumental in penetrating classes. The philosophy of asceticism was held as the goal of Christianity. (Frend, 565-567) 6. The funding for the church was very common in the fourth century. It was done to add more properties into the church. The common donors were like pope Damasus. Wealthy individuals also donated handsomely. The idea was propagated that donation meant insurance against the flames of hell and was held as transfer of money and wealth from unsafe world to a safe place. Slavery was also accepted and justified in Christianity. Justification for slavery was done based on the fact that the slaves could live and eat well without any griefs under their master. (Frend, 569-570) 7. Circumcellions were described as the leaders of the saints and emerged in 340. They were donatists but they were feared by the other donatists. The circumcellions gathered their strength from the local people. Some religious aims were also attributed to their performance. They were the first group to claim for the overthrow of the social order and asked for the reversal of values. (Frend, 572) 8. Antonys monk carried out operations against the demons in the desert. They were helped by local landlords who had all given up their farm. Antony’s community was popular in Syria and Egypt. The increase in taxation in Syria was protested by the Antony’s monk. In Upper Egypt a different kind of monasticism prevailed. They were referred to as the Pachom and they failed to gain peace and solidarity in their life under the rule of a master. The monks engaged in prayers and in works and would get together in prayers. There were strict disciplines among the monks and they all had uniform dress. (Frend, 574-577) 9. Syrian monasticism became popular in the regime of Constantius II. The monasticism in Syria and Mesopotamia had independent growth activities. Syrian monasticism was also referred to as the emergence of non-helenic culture. The monks tried to reform the society and rebuke the rich. They were also able to inculcate an idea of Christianity which was different from that prevalent in Syria. They were instrumental in bringing change to the society. (Frend, 578) 10. The terms of Nicene was accepted by the Alexander of Alexandria, Marcellus and The Eusthathius but there were some difficulties in supporting it fully fledged as there were probability of backlash from the bishops. However Marcellus had an idea that the creed was incapable of removing heresy. The canons were disciplinary actions. The canons ruled on the reception of clergy and their converting to baptism. There was a presence of twenty disciplinary canons in total. The title of ecumenical deals with the authority that is coextensive with the universal church or at least to the Roman Empire. The pagans had exhibited hostile reactions as there was evidence of riots in places. Constantines pro Christian policy was not accepted by hem and the statue of the emperor was also damaged. (Chadwick 201-208) 11. Athansius philosophy regarding theology was much similar to that of Irenaeus where similarity can be traced to the fact that God alone could declare himself as inferior and any mediator cannot play any role. The incarnation is hinted against pagan criticism. His theories imbibed much from the tradition followed by Origen. His belief regarding the nature of Christ had the belief that god that the incarnation of god led to the incorporation in human nature after rising from the dead and justice is achieved after death only by the redemption from God. (Chadwick, 228-229) 12. Gregory of Nazinus worked as a bishop brought a series of reforms. The general body in his regime was reported to have a sort of bad temper but under him they were steady and he was able to provide teaching in a sweet manner. He was also held in god esteem by the people. However his approach was not liked by his enemies and with false allegations raised against him he was thrown from the chair. His critiques had other motives other than teaching and were greedy towards wealth. (Ehrman, 139-142) Read More