Comparing and contrasting functionalist,marxist and feminist perspective on religion - Essay Example

Comparing and Contrasting Functionalist, Marxist and Feminist Perspective on Religion Religion refers to those socially shared ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that have to do with the supernatural or "beyond" (Zanden 371). For Shepard, Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things (388). The theorists like Marx Weber, Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim have different views on Religion. Emile Durkheim presented his functionalist perspective of religion in his work The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (Thio 385). He emphasized that religion functions to preserve social order. Every religion possessed both rituals and moral norms (Ibid). By way of rituals, people sanctify and renew their bonds to one another. Their beliefs in the sacred and acceptance of common norms are strengthened. Thus, religion binds the society and maintains it (Ibid). As a whole, functionalist theorists direct their focus on the contributions the religion has made to the survival of the society. Functionalists argue that the role of religion is to preserve the status quo rather than to promote social change. They agree that religion is a beneficial conservative force because it maintains consensus, binds people together and promotes social order. They however see it as having a positive influence, whereas the Marxist view is somewhat more negative in its outlook. ("The Different"). The essential function of religion was to provide through sacred symbols a mirror for members of society to see their common unity. Through its system of beliefs, religion offers an explanation of the nature of social life (Shepard 391). The conflict theorists on the other hand, as represented by Karl Marx viewed religion as producing an otherworldly focus that diverts the oppressed from seeking thisworldy social change (Zanden 382). Marx viewed it is an expression of human alienation and an illusion. It is a form of false consciousness and as a tool of the powerful in the struggles between competing social class ( Robertson 405). It is the "sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of the heartless world, the soul of the soulless circumstances. It is the opium of the people" ( Thio 385). Marx considered it as a profound form of human alienation because people tend to lose control over the social world they have created resulting to a situation where they find themselves alien in the hostile social environment (Robertson 405). This is because people shape social institutions expecting that the same will serve their needs yet find themselves to be the servant of the institutions they created (Zanden 382). Conflict theorists have taken a new perspective on the relationship between religion and social change. They view it not as a passive response to social relations of production but as an active force shaping the contours of social life (Ibid 383). Marxist argue that religion is a mechanism for social control- (as does functionalism), religion maintains the existing system of exploitation, and reinforces class relationships and inequalities. Further, Marx argued that religion dulls the pain of oppression by: 1) Promising a paradise of eternal bliss in the after life, 2) By often making poverty tolerable by offering heaven as a reward for they're suffering c) By giving the hope of supernatural intervention to solve the worlds problems and d) Justifies social order/hierarchies- by saying that poverty is divinely ordained as a punishment for sin ( "The Different"). .Feminists on one hand agree with Marxists to the extent of religion acting as an instrument of domination and oppression but not for the ruling class but for men. They believe people live in a patriarchal society. Radical feminists during the 1970's and 1980's view religion primarily as patriarchal ideology regardless of the different forms in which it appeared (Newman, "Feminist"). They found that there exists a relationship between religion and politics. The male controlled institution, such as religion defines women as subordinate to men and are used to insure the perpetuation of female subordination (Shepard 272). The focal point in the feminist's study of religion is on religious practice. Feminist's critiques have marked feminist philosophy of religion with a complex set of relations to the subject matter of religion, as well as to the discipline of philosophy. And in the advent of religious resurgence, the work of Elizabeth Cady Stanton in 1885, which states that “History shows that the moral degradation of woman is due more to theological superstitions than to all other influences together” ("Feminist") was more persuasive. They do not presume that religion exists as some common universal underlying all the various traditions; only particular religions exist, and even the very concept of religion itself has come to be recognized as a modern and Western concept (Ibid). Like Marxists, Feminist like Simone de Beauvoir view religion as that which acts for females as it does to the oppressed classes. Religion creates a false gender consciousness among females. It makes women think they are equal to men when really they aren't. Women like the oppressed classes, are told they will be rewarded in heaven for they're sufferings (The Different n.p). For Karen Armstrong, religion religion hasn't been good to women'; they have been neglected to a marginal position. She says however that women haven't always been subordinate within religion e.g. in Europe archaeologists found a picture of a pregnant naked women who was also a great mother goddess. (Ibid). Jean Holm's view is that many religions stress equality in practice, she says however that women are far from equal e.g. in Japan folk religion, only men can take part in festivals (Ibid). Both Marxist and Feminist view religion as a form of false consciousness. In contrast however to Marxist, feminist directed it to women alone because of their drive for gender equality in religion. However, there are groups of feminists that do not see religion as oppressive to women as exemplified by the criticisms of Leila Badawi and Alexandra Wright. Functionalist and Marxist pointed to some ways in which religion satisfies the needs of individuals and of society. 2.Secularization, ushered in by the Renaissance, has now become a global phenomenon (Sharma, "Secularization"). Secularization- the process through which religion loses influence over society as a whole (Shepard 388) is occurring at an unprecedented rate because of industrialization. The concept is based on the theory, held by some sociologists, that as societies become industrialized their religious morals, values, and institutions give way to secular ones and some religious traits become common secular practices ("Secularization"). Secularization is the process of organizing society or aspects of social life around non-religious values or principles. It is linked closely to Max Weber's concept of a growing ‘disenchantment of the world’ as the sphere of the magical, sacred and religious retreats in cultural significance before the driving force of rationalization of culture and social institutions powered by emergent capitalism ("Secularization is the Process"). During the process of secularization, institutions throughout society - economic, political, and social - are removed from the control of religion. At times in the past this control exercised by religion might have been direct, with ecclesiastical authorities also having authority over the operation of these institutions - for example, when priests are in charge of the nation's only school system. Other times, the control might have been indirect, with religious principles constituting the basis for how things are run, such as when religion is used to define citizenship (Cline "Secularism vs Secularization"). In the highly diversified modern societies, traditional religion increasingly becomes a separate and distinct institution, its influence eroded by other institutions such as government, science and education. Indeed, these societies typically include a large number of people who have little real commitment to religion ( Robertson 419). The secularization of modern civilization is partly due to the inability of people to adjust the ethical and spiritual interests of mankind to the rapid advance of the physical sciences. However much optimists may insist that science cannot ultimately destroy religion, the fact remains that the general tendency of scientific discovery has been to weaken not only religious but ethical values ( Niebuhr, "Secularization"). Humanism as well as religion has been engulfed in the naturalism of the day. The obsession with the physical sciences and with the physical world has enthroned the brute and blind forces of nature, and people follow the God of the earthquake and the fire rather than the God of the still small voice. The morals of the man in the street, which may not be able to catch the full implications of pure science, are corrupted by the ethical consequences of the civilization which applied science has built. While pure science enthroned nature in the imagination, applied science armed nature in fact (Ibid). The secularization of modern life is not only partly due to the advance of science, but also to the moral inadequacies of Protestantism. If liberal Protestantism is too pantheistic, traditional Protestantism is too quietistic to meet the moral problems of a socially complex age (Ibid). However, there are studies especially in Canada and United States negating the decline of religion. Secularization must be categorized and distinguished in order to understand why despite the claim for the rapid decline of religion, such is not the case in the United States and Canada, which are two highly industrialized societies. Secularization affecting traditional religion must be distinguished from secularization affecting other orientations toward the sacred or supernatural (Robertson 420). There is much evidence that traditional religion is being eroded because social change alters all institution over time. The churches elsewhere have generally adhered to their traditional ways, and as a result have been pushed to the margins of their secular societies (Ibid). In contrast to losing of belief in the supernatural wherein no evidence can be gathered to prove such loss. Churches in North America have remained nearer the center of society by becoming secularized themselves. The American churches are becoming more secular, and the American clergy are becoming and increasingly involved in community affairs (Shepard 399). From this distinction, the rapid decline is not on the belief of the sacred or supernatural but on reduced social influence of traditional religion. In the United States pollsters and scholars have found evidence that the vast majority of Americans continue to believe in supernatural forces, identify themselves in religious terms, and hunger for a spiritually enhanced life. Regarding the later, there is clear evidence that many Americans participate regularly in religious and spiritual small groups and form a large market for religious/spiritual books, tapes, music, and paraphernalia (Harper and LeBeau, "Social Change"). Religion is a significant factor in voting patterns, ideology about public policy, and political careers. But pervasive evidence also exists for changes that many observers see as religious decline: declining membership, particularly among liberal/mainline Protestant denominations, and declining participation in religious services and traditional forms of piety like prayer and Bible reading (Ibid). The ravages of World War II gave Europeans the opportunity to challenge traditional philosophical and religious beliefs that, in too many cases, had been caught up in the competing struggles. “State” religions appeared to be relics of a past best forgotten as Europe chartered a new course ultimately leading to the creation of the EU. Economic prosperity also played a part in the move toward secularization (Streich,,, "Religion"). Bruce's works "God is Dead" explained that there has been "a long-term decline in the power, popularity and prestige of religious beliefs and rituals", brought about by modernization, or more specifically by "individualism, diversity and egalitarianism in the context of liberal democracy" (Yee " God is Dead by Steve Bruce"). Many attribute secularization to the rise of science, but "no contemporary sociologist of religion argues that Christianity has been fatally undermined by science" (Ibid). Religious institutions may continue to voice opinions about public matters, but their actual authority and power are restricted entirely to the private domain: people who conform their behavior to the values of those religious institutions do so voluntarily, with neither encouragement nor discouragement emanating from the state (Cline "Secularism vs Secularization"). 3.Church is a life encompassing religious organization to which all members of a society belong (Shepard 395). It tends to be a large established religious group with a formalized structure of belief, ritual and authority. It is an inclusive organization, welcoming members from a wide spectrum of social background (Thio 392). Denomination is one of several religious organizations that most members of a society accept as legitimate. (Shepard 395). It is one or two or more well-established, relatively tolerant religious organizations that claim the allegiance of a substantive part of the population (Robertson 409). It does not demand official support from the state and may even be at odds with it in some occasion. It has a formal, bureaucratic structure, with trained clergy and other officials and many of the members are born into the faith but the denomination usually accepts almost anyone who wants to join (Ibid). The sect is an exclusive and uncompromising religious organization, usually one that has split off from a denomination for doctrinal reasons (Shepard 409). It is a cohesive religious organization based on the desire to reform the beliefs and practices of another religious organization (Ibid). It asserts its lone claim to legitimacy and rejects life ways and values of dominant society. It is usually consists of a small, voluntary fellowship of converts, most of whom are drawn fro disadvantaged groups. It practices exclusiveness (Zanden 376). While the Church compromises with society, the sect confronts it (Thio 391). Cult is a product of a value crisis or normative breakdown in modern industrial society (Shepard 409). It is a religious organization whose characteristics are not drawn from existing religious tradition within a society (Ibid). It accepts legitimacy of other religious groups but often finds fault with the dominant society. Like denomination, it does not lay claim to the truth but unlike the former it tends to be critical of the society (Zanden 377). Cults reject established religion and are usually united by total rejection of society and extreme devotion to the cult's leader (Thio 398). Many new religious movements have emerged alongside the resurgence of fundamentalism and sometimes some of these are offshoots of fundamentalism, though some are not related (Shepard 403). People attempt to escape moral ambiguity- a sense of personal helplessness, doubt and uncertainty that they grasp onto a new truth offered by cults which stems from excessive emphasis on self interest in American Protestantism. The exaggeration of some of the passage of the bible emphasizing self interest resulted to failure in providing social benefits or self worthiness in a complex and complicated urban society. The new religious yearning seen in the emerging cults is directed towards socialism and mysticism.   With the number of new religious movements present in the 1970s, Wallis classified these movements into three types according to their relationships to the outside world. The first type which is world-rejecting new religious movements is similar to sects as described by Troeltsch( "Explain the Emergence"). Most movements of this type are not traditional and want a change in the world, which seems to be evil or corrupt. The members have to obey strict rules and have to leave their social life behind them. Some of these movements are millenarian (Ibid). These movements attract mostly those people who are marginalized. An example of this type of movements is The Moonies The second type is world-accommodating movements, which are normally offshoots of a church or denomination. They neither accept nor reject the world but simply live within it. They are even tolerant of other beliefs; such an example is the Pentecostalists (Ibid). The last type, which Wallis classifies, is the world-affirming new religious movements. These do not have any form of organization and do not have specific rules because its members believe mostly in human growth. They normally tolerate other religions, and they try to attract people mostly from the middle class through the media. Examples of these types of movements are the New Age and the Church of Scienthology (Ibid). New religious movements arise usually around a father/mother figure that has gained authority after receiving a special revelation, communication, truth or insight. His charisma will vouchsafe loyal followers, even if his lifestyle may give rise to severe doubts to some. He may boost his prestige by claiming to follow the footsteps of a an esteemed spiritual teacher, represent an esoteric tradition, be of noble descent, or channel the wisdom of a great mind ("Psychology of Spiritual Sects"). Containing violence isn't the only motive for the fascination with new religious movements. Many scholars argue that these groups are often the purveyors of more widely accepted ideas. The Oneida community, for example, pioneered the concept of equality in work between men and women, and the Seventh-day Adventists pushed the case for healthier diets. The new religious movements in general had long provided more openings for women to be leaders (Niebuhr, "Alternative Religion"). Many sociologists have argued that the rapid growth in new religious movements is not a response to social deprivation but to secularization. It is argued that since the decline in the importance of the established religions and Trinitarian churches people seek alternative belief systems to explain the world and its difficulties after feeling disillusioned by institutionalized religion. Sociologists argue that many modern religious movements are a response to anxieties created by the dominance of scientific rationalism, materialism and the resulting secularization of society" ("New Religious Movements"). Many Americans use religion as a means toward self-fulfillment and the establishment of their identities. They are increasingly apt to pick and choose among religious organizations, rather like consumers looking for a particular product that best suits their needs. Those who want mystical transcendence may join one group and those who want strict, unambiguous guidelines for behavior may choose another. New religious movements do not appeal to the economically deprived but rather cater psychologically deprived people looking for meaning they cannot find elsewhere (Robertson 419). Because of industrialization it is not surprising to see the emergence of a new religious movement. Work cited 1. Zanden, James W. Vander. The Social Experience: An Introduction to Sociology. New York. Random House Inc. 1988 2. Thio, Alex. Sociology: An Introduction 3rd ed. New York. HarperCollins Publisher Inc. 1992 3.The different theories of Religion. Available at 123 Help Me Website. [Accessed on May 22, 2011]. Website: http://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=122572 4. Shepard, Jon M. Sociology 7th ed. Belmont, CA. Wadswoth Publishing Company. 1999. 5. Robertson, Ian. Sociology 3rd ed. New York. Worth Publishers Inc. 1987. 6. Newman, Amy. Feminist Social Criticism and Marx's Theory of Religion. Hypatia, Volume 9, No. 4. Available at JSTOR Website. 1994 [Accessed on May 25, 2011]. Website: http://www.jstor.org/pss/3810420. 7. Feminist Philosophy of Religion. March 14, 2005. Available at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Website. [Accessed on May 25, 2011]. Website: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-religion/ 8. Sharma, Arvind. Secularization and Academic Study of Religion: Suggestions for a Typology. [Accessed on May 27, 2011]. Available at website: http://comparativestudyofreligion.wordpress.com/2010/08/01/secularization-and-academic-study-of-religion-suggestions-for-a-typology/ 9. Secularization is the process.[Accessed on May 26, 2011]. Available at website: http://sociologyindex.com/secularization.htm 10. Cline, Austin. Secularism vs. Secularization: What's the Difference? Why Do People Confuse Them?. Available at About Website. [Accessed on May 24, 2011]. Website: http://atheism.about.com/od/secularismseparation/a/Secularization.htm 11. Neibuhr, Reinhold. Our Secularized Civilization. [Accessed on May 25, 2011]. Available at website: http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=472 12. Harper, Charles L. and LeBeau, Bryan F. Social Change and Religion in America: Thinking Beyond Secularization. [Accessed on May 25, 2011]. Website: http://are.as.wvu.edu/sochange.htm 13. Streich, Michael. Religion and Secularization in Europe:Statistics Demonstrate Declining Church Attendance for Many Reasons. Available at Suit 101 Website. [Accessed on May 25, 2011]. Website: http://www.suite101.com/content/religion-and-secularization-in-europe-a120543#ixzz1NSGZGJnR 14. Yee, Danny. Book Review of God is Dead: Secularization in the West by Steve Bruce. [Accessed on May 26, 2011]. Available at http://dannyreviews.com/h/God_Dead.html 15. Explain The Emergence And Increase Of New Religious Movements With Special Reference To New Age. Available at OP Papers Website. [Accessed on May 25, 2011]. Website: http://www.oppapers.com/essays/Explain-Emergence-Increase-New-Religious-Movementsspecial/70845 16. Psychology of Spiritual SectsAvailable at Stat Counter Website. .[Accessed on May 26, 2011]. Website: http://wichm.home.xs4all.nl/psymove.html 17. Niebuhr, Gustav. "The New York Times: Alternative Religions as a Growth Industry. Available at CESNUR Website. [Accessed on May 25, 2011]. Website: http://www.cesnur.org/testi/NYTimes99.htm 18. New Religious Movements. Available at Academon Website. [Accessed on May 26, 2011]. Website: http://www.academon.com/Essay-New-Religious-Movements/49565 BIBLIOGRAPHY Website Article with Author Beyer, Catherine. Kentucky Churches Hit With "Satanic" Graffiti. March 10, 2009. Available at About Alternative Religions Website. [Accessed on May 25, 2011]. Website: http://altreligion.about.com/b/2009/03/10/kentucky-churches-hit-with-satanic-graffiti.htm Hunt, Mary E. and Patricia Beattie Jung. Good Sex and Religion: A Feminist Overview. Available at BNET Website. [Accessed on May 25, 2011]. Website: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_2-3_46/ai_n35649840/ Lindley, Susan Hill. Feminist Theology in a Global Perspective. [Accessed on May 26, 2011]. Available at http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=1230 Polebaum, Jessica. Feminist Review Examines Religion and Spirituality. Available at SSRC Website. [Accessed on May 26, 2011]. Website: http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2011/03/17/feminist-review-examines-religion-and-spirituality/ Thomas, Lyn and Brah, Avtar. Feminist Review:Religion and Spirituality. Available at Palgrave Macmillan Website. [Accessed on May 25, 2011]. Website: http://www.palgrave-journals.com/fr/journal/v97/n1/full/fr201036a.html doi:10.1057/fr.2010.36 Website Article with no Author LOP 11: Christian Witness to New Religious Movements. Available at The Laussane Movement Website. [Accessed on May 25, 2011]. Website: http://www.lausanne.org/all-documents/lop-11.html Read More