The Globalization of Religion in Japan - Essay Example

The Globalization of Religion in Japan Introduction My essay is based on the globalization of religion in Japan because I feel Japan would serve asa great metaphor for the diversity apparent in the rest of the world. Japan is an ancient nation that has undergone great changes in the preceding centuries. Hence a study of the effect of globalization in a religious context on the Japanese is a way of analyzing globalization of religion in the world on a macro level. Think about describing the modern day world and its system in one word and the first word that is bound to come up in the present generation’s mind is that of ‘globalisation’. While many interpret globalisation as being synonymous with ‘internationalisation’, here, the idea of globalisation is more with respect to it being a ‘borderless’ phenomenon. What is surprising in all of this however, is the fact that, while every sphere of our lives is considered to be effected by globalisation, we somehow fail to count the religious aspect of our lives in this sphere of influence. Religion has throughout been considered to be an external factor which takes place besides globalisation or in reaction to the process of globalisation like in the case of the Iranian revolution. The Iranian revolution started as a backlash against the growing Western influence under the auspices of the Shah of Iran, an after effect of increasing globalization. Whatever the case might be, what is established as a norm is that religion has nothing to do with globalisation. Globalisation of Religion The reality is in fact quite to the contrary; religion is as much of an important factor in globalisation as is the nation-state system or capitalism for that matter. Even though the exact nature of what religion entails for us on the whole is as yet still unclear. Despite the fact that not one can in actuality make particular predictions about our future and how globalization will bring about changes in our world, there are some strong indications nonetheless. More importantly, globalization of religions seems to be driving the diversification scale of the developed world as well as the developing world forward. It is believed that globalization would result in great changes such as the strengthening of bonds between countries and groups. The importance and significance of borders that separate whole nations and countries from one another would be reduced and lessened. Earlier, what was deemed important and exemplary and was in the hands of the few, would reach out to the disadvantaged ones: an indication of the opening of borders as well as minds. The way information technology has taken over our globalized world is also indicative of new phenomenon stepping on to the world stage. This cannot be controlled by one person alone; rather it is a collaborative effort of the various nations of the world. We can also assume that the different religions of the world are on an important threshold at the moment, where any moment they would be pushed towards a change in perception and especially with the ideas that these religions propagate. Even though, at present it is not really possible to provide a fair approximation of the way this progression would come to be in the near time, what is most probable is that information regarding these various religions will progressively travel in more than one method, in fact different from the way it used to earlier. It is assumed that there will be a formation of new religious organizations and their teachings would undergo a codification and alteration in terms of what they disseminate to the public. In fact Beyer argues that "global civil religion is both possible and likely; but there will be more than one of them and these will simply be more religious offerings beside others, both systemic and cultural” (Beyer, 1994) What we need to know is that, a religion’s expansion to other parts of the globe without any regard to creed, nation or race is a relatively old concept; religious globalization as phenomena is nothing new. Most of the current world organized religions have been around for more than thousands of years. This is because most religions have the capacity to transform and accept changes as time goes by and the needs of people change. History of Religion in Japan With particular reference to Japan in this regard we must first understand the dynamics of that nation. While it is true that the economic factors have compelled the nation to adopt the open market system, Japan is nonetheless a civilisation which will not easily open up to new ideas culturally. In the religious sphere however it has been seen that Japan’s influence in the Asian countries specifically and even the European countries has been quite strong. Also the presence of cosmopolitan spiritual groups that have originally their roots in foreign lands is indicative of the international influence that Japan has been accepting over the course of the years. The Korean Unification Church is a relevant example since its influence has been on the rise in the developed countries such as the United States as well as Japan. On a similar note, there are many other religious movements that have influenced the globe in the past few decades or so. Academics and Commentators hold the opinion that the rapidly developing world is more accepting of new changes and this could affect every culture in a different manner. While almost all societies are now open to new religious groups and ideas what remains to be seen is the reaction of the people towards such movements. The Islamic Revolution in Iran under Ayatollah Khomeini and the New Christian Right movement in the United States are cognizant of the drastic changes any nation can experience with regard to the onset of globalization. It stands to reason whether religious globalization would go hand in hand in bringing people together or will the world instead stand divided on religious terms. For certain other critics there is also the chance of religion being declared a private matter, whereby groups and communities have no say in an individual’s religious practices. Whatever the case maybe, as the world stands today, it can be safely said that no civilization, no matter how old and strong, can escape from the influence of other religions and cultures. With increased number of Japanese settled abroad or high number of foreigners settled in Japan, there is no way that Japan can avoid religious diversity. Japan is a country that has been open to change especially since following in the footsteps of the industrial giant United States of America. Traditional religions in Japan moved towards accepting influences of a growing world where different cultures and enmeshing with one another. The onset of globalization meant modifications in social conditions and the consequences of those conditions. Similarly, with rapid globalization various world religions seemed to come together in the country of Japan. In its bid to accept change, Japan had to accept cultural, social and religious influences as well. Earlier Japan was following the danka system, a religious patronage system involving Buddhist temples, in the Tokugawa era. This traditional system functions to this day and is indicative of Japan’s ability to accept modern concepts while staying true to its roots. (Gavin Kendall, 2009) The actual connections between the people and the temples they subscribed to in the local areas have gradually led to a weaker connection over time. On the other hand, the connections between local shrines and ujiko or shrine parishioners deepened after the Meiji restoration in the wake of government policy, which treated shrine Shinto as a national ritual system. However post-World War II, according to the constitution newly developed there was to be separation between the state and the church and Japan was to guarantee religions freedom. This resulted, to some extent, from Japanese people’s self-examination of the negative effects of the deep connection between the state and shrine Shinto just before and during the war, but also from strong demands by the occupation forces after the war. Based on these principles, shrine Shinto was henceforth treated the same as other religions resulting in a weakening of the commitment of people to local shrines. Spread of Islam in Japan With regard to Islam, the religion spread in Japan over the course of more than fifty years. Pakistani missionaries first entered Japan in 1950. Later students from largely Muslim countries such as Pakistan, Turkey, Iran and Iraq came to Japan to set up the first Muslim Student Association. Newspapers such as The Voice of Islam helped to publicize the message of Islam to a wider audience and gained ground in Japanese culture. It can rightly be said that the most influential period in Japan’s history with Islam was that of the 1980s. During this period, Japan witnessed mass migration from all over the world but most importantly from populations that were primarily Muslim: these included people from Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Malaysia among others. These emigrants started living in their traditional fashion while occupying Japanese houses and marrying Japanese girls. Naturally with the passage of time, the neighbourhoods that these emigrants were a part of started becoming more Islamic. This was because the lifestyle of these emigrants was very Islamic in nature – for instance there was a great demand for halal (lawful) meat in the Muslim community. Before the arrival of Muslims, meat shops did not care for the provision of halal meat. But gradually, as the population started becoming more diverse, the food and retail stores had to accommodate a wider audience. This resulted in an ever diverse culture in Japan; a true representative of a global community. Also, with the passage of time a need was felt for the establishment of Islamic architecture, much like the temples and synagogues around most Japanese neighbourhoods. Hence, Muslims started working on the building of the Tokyo Mosque that had earlier been demolished. This mosque was constructed in the Ottoman style of architecture and was considered a great achievement. This period also saw the establishment of Islamic camps that focused on preaching the peaceful message of Islam amongst the Japanese population. These camps were meant to attract the attention of curious souls who wanted to know about the Islamic religion, living in a diverse environment as they were. In the present context it is important to point out the presence of the internet with relation to the spread of world religions especially Islam. The internet has emerged as a powerful medium of communication especially with the youth of today. It has managed to convey ideas and mindsets from all corners of the world to stranded localities. Various Islamic websites have been set up over the internet for the propagation of Islam in a sensible and peaceful way. Many people visit Islamic websites over the course of the day to satisfy their curiosity and in turn get influenced by the ideas mentioned on the homepages. Religious accommodation is a popular concept among the Japanese. Religious adjustment or accommodation means “government laws or policies that have the purpose and effect of removing a burden on, or facilitating the exercise of, a person’s or an institution’s religion.” (Beyer, 1994) By their very nature, religious practices are actions. In consequence, they are presided over in a different manner than that of other natural expressions such as normal speech for instance. Many times believers are faced with the issue of choosing between either their carefully guarded religious duties or their obligations to their sect. Consequently, many believers might be bowed down by such decisions and may be strained. A believer’s conscience is set free with the practice of religious accommodation as he only needs to compromise on a situation and find the right balance between both duties instead of choosing one duty over another as was previously the case (McConnell, 1992). This comes about as the believer is granted a lawful exemption from practicing something that is looked down upon in that believer’s religion. Socially harmful activities or decisions, such as bigamy, are not allowed by the state in any case, whether the religion permits them or not. This is an area for contention as for some believers it is not acceptable that the human being (state) question the word of God (religion). In 1981 a declaration on Religious Tolerance and Non-Discrimination was issued by the United Nations also known as 1981 UN Declaration. The Japanese had to make almost no amendments to their current system since they were already incorporating most of the tenets and obligations put down by the UN declaration beforehand (Steenstrup, 1991). The present constitutional law in Japan assures freedom of religion, entails upon the government to consider all religions as equal, and asks of the government and all governing bodies to be impartial, given the possibility, amid religion and non-religion. The Japanese, for that reason, have not had to considerably alter their system in lieu to the 1981 UN Declaration (Berg, 2004). Regulation of Religion in Japan Since AD 701 the regulation of religion has been taken up by the Japanese government in Japan. Even currently, clerics are regulated through provisions mentioned in Taiho Ritsu-ryo (the most ancient and well remembered Japanese legal code). The substance of these laws actually derives from the Chinese law. At the time this was the most important lawful structure. Buddhism and Shinto were the chief religions in Japan during that time. Japan had Shinto as a native faith that is based around the veneration of the kami, or celestial component, contained by objects (mostly a sword, a stone, mirror or a tree) or inside people (these can be either one’s relatives or some other historical person). Shinto was observed as the primary state religion in those times, and actually had a separate section of the government allocated to looking over it. This was because it had a historical backdrop in its association with Tenno, the Emperor of Japan; however, it did not bind upon its believers to practice adulation towards the emperor. Buddhism, on the other hand, was treated in a different manner. China had experienced the social unrest and anti-governmental activities brought on by Buddhist priests. Japan has learnt these valuable lessons and tried its best to restrict and compound the Buddhist priests in its region. Yoro-ryo (enforced in AD 718), preceded by Taiho Ritsu-ryo allowed for restrictions to be implicated upon priests belonging to Buddhist temples. These brought to fore the provision that in order to be a Buddhist priest, special permission was to be obtained by the government. In order to revert back to a secular function of life, a priest had to report to the government by getting touch with the master or the onlooker at the temple where the priest was in practice. Priests were also forbidden from being in possession of private property. They had to adhere to the various religious laws and commandments bestowed upon them, with strict measure. Priests who failed to comply with these rules and get involved in banned activities such as enjoying music and gambling, drinking or getting caught eating any of the five acerbic spices laid down by the government could find themselves in prison for a period of around forty to hundred days. Moreover, if a priest was apprehended while involved in the art of fortune telling, charming people or treating diseases through these methods he could lose his license of being a priest and had to return to the lifestyle of an ordinary person. Other ordinances that were passed under the government declared punishment and loss of privileges that came with being declared a priest if the accused priest had been involved in a murder case, had engaged in foretelling bad events through fortune telling, been involved in sexually explicit activities or was guilty of committing theft. Priests were also disallowed from preaching about their specific faiths and beliefs to people outside temples formally approved by the government. This is indicative of the fact that there was no concept of free religious practice even for those priests who were a part of temples specifically approved by the government. The government was involved in activities relating to severe religious suppression – activities that did not fall in line and go by the rules out forward by the government. Priests and the temples that they belonged to were financially supported by the government and hence the government was in essence controlling these priests and their temples: both directly and in some cases, indirectly. Most of the state ritualistic ceremonies were Buddhist in nature, even though some of the ceremonies came directly under the administration of the Shinto faith. It won’t be wrong to say that at the time, Buddhism was regarded as the state religion – since it had so much backing from the Japanese government of the time. With the passage of time, however, the strict checks and balances put upon religious leaders and priests started deteriorating away and gave way to freer policies. As government control over the previous iron policies started giving way, there was an unprecedented increase in the number of licensed priests. Many of the times priests that had not been given their licenses were employed by influential temples hired as soldiers in lowly ranks to pressurize the government into taking them seriously or allowing them to disseminate more power than before. Yoro-ryo had various religious laws under and theses laws could not be declared void officially. But these laws were not applied by the new government in 1192 with the onset of the Samurai rule in Japan, as was the custom before which inevitably lead to chaos. It gave priests the liberty to start preaching their own flavor of Buddhism to the mass public, without consideration to the fact that they had already been appointed to officially approved temples. The new government was unable to control this new movement and ended up proving to be more imbalanced when it decided to provide greater shielding for one sect over another. There seemed to be a battle between the old order and the new order. The new order was starting to gain ground among the common man with great rapidity and this was unacceptable to the old order who tried its best to destroy and root out the new order of temples by trying to enlist the help of the government, but to no use. The springing up of new religious orders and sects whether it was in the Shinto order or in Buddhism was completely unacceptable to the government. On the other hand, Christianity was completely banned because in its trading work with Christian countries such as Spain and Portugal, Japan had suspected these countries to be too invasive in the political matters of other countries. They were able to achieve such invasiveness through missionary activities that were on high form during this period. It was a growing fear of the government of the time that the few Christians that were on their land would try to rebel against the government by uniting on a common cause. For this purpose, the government took strict measures to seal this threat. Christians were expelled from Japan or in many cases burnt to death if they refused to denounce their faith. A special religious test was also introduced by the government, whereby it could be decided whether Christians were loyal to their faith or not. In this test a picture of Mary and her child Jesus was presented to the Christians and here they were asked to stamp on the picture. Those who failed to stamp on the picture were denounced and those who did were asked to reaffirm their non-connection with the Christian faith. Christianity, in any shape or form, was not acceptable to the government, whatever the conditions. Realization of Religious Freedom in Japan The government of Japan first realized religious freedom in 1875. In 1889, Article 28 of the Meiji Constitution states that: “Japanese subjects shall, within limits not prejudicial to peace and order, and not antagonistic to their duties as subjects, enjoy freedom of religious belief.” This article allowed believers to practice their faith according to the prescribed method, but in case of any conflicts with their duties as subjects to the empire, the believers had the responsibility to be answerable first to the state and then to their religion. This was not debatable. As dutiful subjects Japanese citizens had to maintain a deferential attitude towards the state and the head of the Japanese empire. Moreover, national education was termed binding upon all citizens, just like all citizens were liable to taxation. Any religions that clashed with these tenets set by the Japanese law were banned (Herinleben, 1998). The Meiji Constitution was modified and crafted after Japan’s defeat in the Second World War. Amendments were made to the clause that dealt with religious solidarity: “Freedom of religion is guaranteed to all. No religious organization shall receive any privileges from the State, nor exercise any political authority. No person shall be compelled to take part in any religious act, celebration, rite or practice. The State and its organs shall refrain from religious education or any other religious activity.” (Smith, 2001). One of the major forces behind Japan’s strides towards globalization has been the inclusion of various religions in its social setup. It should be noted that earlier Japan was an isolated country that had fought of any progress towards globalization. In fact, Japan had tried to close itself off to outside influences because it felt that outside influences or a globalized society might harm good governance of the country. Japan was then only another extension of the Chinese civilization before it actually accepted the need for a more globalized context within its society. Japan’s possible modernization became a possibility in the Meiji era when it had started becoming slightly more accepting of outside influences (Tojo, 2004). Globalization has served to be of immense importance to the Japanese. Japan was a nation closed off to the outside world and its influences in the Tokugawa Period that ranges from early 17th century to late 19th century (Webster, 2001). Since then, the Japanese nation has been shaped and influenced by a lot of outside factors. The study of Japan as a country which has had to adapt to changes and outside influences, is extremely interesting to say the least. Many historians and economists look at Japan’s model to understand the way globalization works and how it affects whole nations and their populations. However, this aspect should also be kept in mind that not every country can experience change and try to adapt to it while finding a strong national integrity like Japan did. Globalisation of Religion and Economy On an economical basis as well, Japanese economy has had to adjust quite a few times in the past. With religious diversity on the rise in Japan, the economy has also seen changes. As new faiths incorporate into the Japanese set up, there is wider dialogue between the masses and people have taken the opportunity at face value to make it work for them. Religious diversification means that the biases and prejudices that are part of any society may get a chance to be eliminated through economical and social means. By interacting through various religious and social classes with the means of trade workplace interaction, these biases can surely be wiped out. This is one reason why the Japanese are seen as an extremely tolerant nation that has been a fast emerging force on the world map. The epidemic of racial discrimination is quite low in this part of the world. What this goes to show is that religious diversification has helped the Japanese people gain ground and instead of priding themselves and polishing their inflated egos on the progress that they have been able to achieve in the last fifty years of so, the Japanese have opened themselves to ever new ideas, people and opportunities. Through this manner it can be argued that religious diversification in Japan has led to a better and homogenously mature Japanese society. On the world map the economy of the Japanese has a share of around one-quarter out of the total production experienced by the global economy. This is a mighty figure. It can be argued that this figure could only be reached once Japan opened its borders and its economy to the rest of the world. However, studies show otherwise. An interesting point to come out of these studies is that Japan has a self-sustainable economy. This is to say that the Japanese economy relies very little on its exports and imports. Rather it is the domestic market that has most of the say in Japan’s stable economy (Katsuhito, 1995). Even before the depreciation of the yen in the international market, Japan was not highly reliant on the global economy. But, what Japan does lack is a source of raw material. It has to continually import raw materials from the international market to keep its production and management sector functioning. With globalization on the go, the transmigration of people has helped talent from all over the world in entering the Japanese society as well as exporting talent outside the Japanese community. When a community only has one point of view to base its opinions on, many times it is unable to see a better and more mature aspect towards the resolution of the said problem or issue. However, when a community is culturally and religiously diverse, there are higher chances of there being many different points of view. All of these can be correct; it doesn’t mean that only one point of view is the right one. But out of so many opinions will emerge the best one, the one that everyone can take together and work forward to achieve a single cause. Japanese New Religion Another important aspect in the wake of globalization of religion is that of the Japanese New Religion. Japan has not only accepted into its fold religions from other corners of the world but has also exported its ancient religions to other parts of the world. The spread of Japanese religions includes the opening of the Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University, as well as the strategy incorporated by the Church of World Messianity in Brazil with relation to keeping the Japanese spirit alive in its followers. According to Peter Clarke’s study a new interesting dimension to the spread of Japanese religion in the West is the introduction of the “new” and the “new, new” Japanese religion which aims to incorporate within its context myth, and miracles etc. Clarke believes that the Japanese religions have overcome a “speedy advancement” in spreading across the globe, especially the West which has helped to bolster the cultural and economic significance of this major Asian country (Clarke, 1994). Such is the reason why the Japanese have an increasingly important role and function to play in global matters of today. Most people assume that it is just the hard work motto that the Japanese follow. What they fail to understand is that only hard work doesn’t always pay off. Rather it is a whole lot of other things. One of these is the idea of religious diversification. Globalization has seen to the idea of an increasingly globalized society. Now in Japan, the community that surrounds a particular office in itself can be seen to comprise of people from different ethnic backgrounds and cultures. Religious diversification allowed new methods to working to be imported into the Japanese system. Hence, Japan had the perfect opportunity to test this hybrid mix of cultures and work ethics and come up with something that would benefit the Japanese economy in essence. As stated earlier, religious diversification within Japan was not an easy task. Neither did this accumulation of religious thoughts and practices from all over the world happen overnight. It was a slow and difficult process that expands over a matter of decades. The Japanese government and peoples were intuitive enough to recognize the benefits of allowing religious diversification within their homeland. This diversification has, however, come with its costs as well. Conflicts between people belonging to different faiths have occurred over years on a muted yet nonetheless existing scale. Globalization in itself, holds no significance if it is unable to uplift the current living standards and the lifestyle of the inhabitants of any place. In this context, the globalization of religion in Japan has played its due part. The significance of globalization can be measured by the way the Japanese economy has skyrocketed in the past decade. Globalization allows for newer ideas to seep in. However, there are some economies that choose to view this aspect of globalization in a negative manner. It is true that everything has its merits and demerits and globalization is no different. But this also holds true that we should always focus on the positive aspects of anything rather than harping upon its negative aspects. Conclusion If the same criterion is applied to globalization we will realize that it has both been a blessing and a curse. It is up to the specific economy and the country to determine what route it wants to take with regard to globalization. Most importantly, however, one should keep in mind that it isn’t entirely in our hands whether we want globalization to occur in our part of the world. With the advent of new information technologies and the internet there is hardly any part in the world that has been left unaffected by globalization. We cannot essentially cage ourselves or lock our people and our economy within four walls, like Japan earlier did (Takenaka Heizo, 1998). That time has come and gone. Just the way the Japanese realized the merits of globalization and the good that it can reap for not only its economy, but also its social and political stature on the international front, other countries that are as yet hesitant in the face of growing globalization could do well to learn from this example. It won’t do anyone much good to sit around trying to determine what could have been and what has happened. Instead of looking back nostalgically at the past we should look forward to what situations are facing us and try to combat them in the best manner possible. No one can achieve a semblance of greatness without working for it; same holds true for individuals and nations. Globalization’s importance can furthermore be judged by taking into account the way many other countries have been able to benefit from. If we’re just focusing on Japan, it won’t be false to say that since Japan’s welcome of globalization within its region the nation’s prestige has been on the rise. Before World War II, Japan was seen as an isolated nation that only kept to itself and was harsh and critical of outside forces and influences. However, after globalization, Japan became the center of attention with its technological advances and its dedication to hard work finally paid off. In the context of globalization one of the most important factors has been that of religious globalization; whether we consider it with respect to Japanese religion in other parts of the world or other religions in the Japanese region. Japan has been able to bring together various aspects of its culture and merge them successfully with other religions and cultures to come up with an exotic mix of different work ethics, lifestyles and way of living. It has been the effort of the Japanese people, which in the entirety of the phase, does not just refer to people of Asian origins anymore that they have been able to take all these mixes along and work along a path which they feel would help their society as well as their nation on the whole. Globalization, hence, has only been successful so far because the Japanese people have made it work for them and understood its importance in the present global and local context. Bibliography Berg, T. C. (2004). The State and Religion in a Nutshell. Paris: Rostain Press. 76-77 Beyer, P. (1994). Religion and Globalization. New York. Sage Publications. 32-33 Clarke, Peter. (1994). Japanese New Religions in the West. New York: Routledge. 5-7 Gavin Kendall, I. W. (2009). The Sociology of Cosmopolitanism: Globalization, Identity, Culture and Government. London: Sage Press. 87-92 Herinleben, H.-G. (1998). Japan. New York: Westermann. 210 – 223. Katsuhito, U. (1995). 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