Social Sciences And Race - Essay Example

Abstract A race is a broad topic and is considered a social construct as it is quite subjective without much scientific backing. A social construct is an explanation created by society regarding a certain issue or characteristic such as the different traits in human beings hence the issue of race. Most scientists disagree with the concept of race while supporting ethnicity. This paper seeks to look at the various claims and controversies about race. It seeks to separate the facts from opinions in relation to social sciences and evidence supporting them. Keywords: race, ethnicity, caucasian, negroid, Hispanic, A race is a social construct; it was created by people without basis in the natural world but seeks to distinguish people by their different characteristics. It is in contrast with ethnicity, which involves grouping people based on characteristics such as religion, beliefs, culture, ancestry or history or even nationality. Various definitions of race have been developed by various sociologists. Division of mankind as a group is characterized by sharing of a certain combination of features, which have been derived from their common descent, and constitute a vague physical background usually more or less obscured by individual variations, and realized best in the composite picture (Melvin & Hughes, 1986). These definitions are not factual since they claim that human beings from different races differ in subspecies. The race was invented in the eighteenth century by anthropologists who were then referred to as “raciologists” to claim the superiority or inferiority of different races. Races are usually identified by skin color, hair texture; among other physical features possessed by different people (Reich, 1972). It is insufficient to use just one characteristic to explain race. It is usually a combination of two or three of these characteristics. Conventionally, there are five human races, including mongoloid- the Asian and American Indian, Caucasoid- European, Negroid- East African black, Autraloid- Australian and Oceanic and Capoid- South African black. A mixture of races is referred to as “mongrels.” This theory has been rejected over time since there is almost a hundred percent similarity in genetic composition among all the races (Walker, Cassia, & DeLone, 2000). This classification has, however, been accepted as a standard over time. The above theory of race has been used to promote racial profile and racism. The Caucasoid race is predominantly from Northern Europe and are characterized as tall, light skin(white), light colored eyes, thin lips and narrow noses. Their hair is straight or wavy and is usually blond (Rutledge, 1995). Mongoloids are said to have straight black hair, yellow skin, thin lips and almond eyes. Their faces are broad and flat. Negroid`s skin color varies from brown to black. They have kinky hair, brown or black eyes, broad noses, thick lips and they are mostly the Africans. Australoids are similar to Negroids, but their hair is a little different. Mediterranean are usually short with dark hair, skin, and eyes. These physical attributes are superficial features and should not be used to classify the human population into various races. A controversial subject on race is its relation to intelligence. There have been claims that the Caucasians are more intelligent as compared to their counterparts, especially the Negroids (Reich, 1972). This was especially common in the colonial and slave trade eras where the colonialists, who were Caucasians, deemed themselves more intelligent than their colonies. They used this as a powerful tool to exercise their power and undermine other races. This is experienced even today, with neocolonialism being an emerging issue in the former colonies. The colonialists still influence the political will of the countries that they had formerly colonized. Most of them still use the policies that were used during the colonial era, and it is inevitable that they are influenced by those policies. This argument has been used to explain the achievement gap between African Americans and the Caucasians. Other views on this are that it is an as result of historical injustices, differences in socioeconomic status and cultural factors such as parental involvement and the environment. Children raised in lower income homes tend to perform poorer academically as a result of having access to fewer academic resources and poor nutrition, which can affect brain development. Lack of parental involvement in the education of a child acts as a disincentive to them, seeing that children view their parents as role models up to a certain age (Melvin & Hughes, 1986). The environment also plays an important role in the achievement gap. For instance, the Caucasians have grown up being told that they are superior to their African American counterparts. This acts as a motivating factor and pressure not to fall short of the society’s expectations. In contrast, the African Americans are referred to as having less-developed brains. Historical injustices such as these can be viewed as a contributing factor to the achievement gap. Another controversial issue about race is the claim that members of different races have different propensity to commit a crime. Studies have been conducted to show that the Blacks and Hispanics (in the US) commit crime more compared to Caucasians and Asians. They claim that neighborhoods which are predominantly Hispanic or Black report higher crime rates compares to Caucasian neighborhoods (Katheryn, 2004). Although this may be the case, other studies have argued that the reason for this is the injustice in the justice system whereby the racial discrimination sometimes occurs, though rare (Walker, & DeLone, 2000). There is also the issue that the justice system focuses more on the crimes common among these races as compared to those in the Caucasian race such as insurance fraud and other less violent crimes (Walker, & DeLone, 2000). This continued discrimination creates a situation where the Blacks and Hispanics do not trust the justice system leading to a negative attitude towards it. This is counter-productive in the end since they tend to act out at the law enforcement officers in an attempt to avoid crossing paths with them. The race is also a major determinant in the determination of job opportunities and career choices for people all over the world. In this age where people can emigrate to any country of their choice, it can be observed that certain races face better chances at employment compared to others. For instance, Africans commonly emigrate to the west in search of job opportunities. They, however, are faced with challenges finding jobs usually because the Caucasians are preferred. In a situation where the African and a Caucasian with similar qualifications apply for a job, the Caucasian is given preference over the African (Walker, & DeLone, 2000). The converse is true in a situation where a Caucasian immigrates to an African country. They are given the best jobs with highest salary rates, yet the Africans might be more qualified. This is especially a case of neo-colonialism whereby the Africans are biased and tend to assume that foreigners are better qualified. This is the labor queue theory whereby employers especially in developed and urban setting rank employees based on race whereby Caucasians are rated highly, and behind then are Asians, Hispanics, and Africans in that order (Melvin & Hughes, 1986). The issue of income is also associated with race. For instance, in the developed world, the Africans and Asians are paid less than Caucasians in any field. This has been the trend for a long time. The Africans and Asians are viewed as cheap and available labor for hire. This is another angle of the labor queue theory. When it comes to management positions or top paying jobs, it can be observed that the Caucasians hold those positions. In terms of promotions as well, Africans and Asians are the last to receive promotions, if at all it is offered to them. This is not the case in every organization but true for most. An interesting argument postulates that there are interactions between race and genetic characteristics to explain health disparities. Public health researchers especially support this argument saying that studies into the race and environmental risk factors can provide major strides in medical research. They insist that failure to accept biological definitions of the race would be an obstacle in medical research (Melvin & Hughes, 1986). There are critics who say that human belong to the same species and thus attempts to differentiate and group humans into subspecies based on race is an idea that is unacceptable and absurd. It can be observed that for the masses, the race has an effect on social class (Rutledge, 1995). For instance, in the United Stated whereby most races are present, the race considered to be in the top tier of the social class are the Caucasians while the Africans are placed in the lowest. This however unfair it may seem, is the case and has been for a long time. To explain this, the approach of the slave trade in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century is used. During the slave trade, the Africans and Asians were brought from their countries to be slaves in the US. Their masters were the Caucasians. Despite efforts to change the thoughts that have been held about race and social class, it remains that they Caucasians tend to feel superior to the other races. Also, they had the advantage of history and time to grow their wealth and create systems that ensure that their interests are protected (Melvin & Hughes, 1986). The Africans had no say in political systems, which determine, to a large extent, the social class to which one belongs. Another issue is that of race and health. It can be observed that health is different for various races ranging from good access to healthcare among the Caucasians to poor services among Asians, Africans, and Hispanics. They are faced with high mortality rates, high infant mortality rates, increased prevalence of contagious diseases as well as infectious ones. There is no direct relationship between race and health and can only be seen as an interaction of various factors that are different among racial groups. Some of these factors include climate, culture and beliefs, population sizes and views towards healthcare. In African, Asian and Hispanic environments, there are high populations which affect the provision of healthcare services to them. Also, their cultures and beliefs sometimes disagree with modern medicine. This shows that in essence, it is not about race but rather an ethnicity. Ethnicity is whereby individuals are grouped based on common social characteristics, religion and cultures. This is opposed to viewing them based on physical attributes and characteristics. The issue of race and health cannot be separated from ethnicity. However, some medical conditions are associated with certain races, not necessarily based on ethnicity. For example, sickle-cell anemia is common among people with sub-Saharan African ancestry while cystic fibrosis is common among people of European descent (Melvin & Hughes, 1986). The race also influences investment choices of people. In an economic perspective, people invest based on their preferences for the future. In the US, the African- Americans spend mostly on luxury items. They view their wealth as a way of proving otherwise to the society. They use it as an avenue to express their independence and freedom and try to measure up to the Caucasians in a sense. African- Americans who have managed to amass wealth tend to relocate to Caucasian neighborhoods as well as act like, dress and talk like them. They attend events that they would normally not attend and interact with very different people (Melvin & Hughes, 1986). In conclusion, the issue of race is a dynamic one that changes with developing issues in society every day. In the social sciences, race is a social construct can be used to develop ideas to counter issues like racism and inequality as well as social injustices that are committed as a result of people viewing certain races as superior or inferior. Race and ethnicity are related but different terms. Ethnicity is a better way of viewing people since the movement of people into new areas, and inter-marriages have shown that one can possess more than one race. Viewing the positive side of race can be a good way of easing the stereotype that certain races are superior to other. It is my view that every race has a positive side. For instance, medical research has shown that Africans possess larger amounts of melanin that prevent them from certain harmful effects of the sun. Therefore, in this view, they can be considered superior to the other races. Despite the fact that change is hard, it is essential to enhance a better environment for everyone. References Katheryn, R. (2004). Underground Codes: Race, Crime, and Related Fires. New York: New York University Press. Reich, M. (1972). The Economics of Racism in The Capitalist System. Prentice-Hall Rutledge, D. (1995). Race, Class, and Occupation: An Analysis of Black and White Earning Differences for Professional and Non-Professional Men. Research in Race and Ethnic Relations. Melvin, T., & Hughes, M. (1986). The Continuing Significance of Race: A Study of Race, Class and Quality of Life in America. American Sociological Review. Walker, S., Cassia S., & DeLone, M. (2000). The Color of Justice: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America, CA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning. Read More