Gender Discrimination - a Constraint to Educational Attainment in South Asia - Essay Example

Gender discrimination - a constraint to educational attainment in South Asia Contents 2 Introduction: 2 Literacy rates in South Asia 5Conclusion 10 Abstract: This paper attempts to discuss the myriad reasons for educational disparity between genders in South Asian countries. The paper will focus on the steps taken by the governments in these countries to bridge this gap, and encourage more women to become literate and self-sufficient. Focus will also be given to some reasons why these policies have failed or are showing delayed results that are below expectations. Keywords: female literacy, South Asia literacy, gender discrimination, educational attainment Introduction: The pages of history will bear testimony to the generations of gender discrimination in fields such as education, employment and self-sufficiency in the South Asian context. South Asian countries like India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh have a long and common past. Societal practices where women were relegated more to the domestic arena and were protected from external influences was common to all these societies. What started out as positive intent that of securing the lives and dignity of women, became exploitative with the passage of time. Cultural sanctions against women became common practise under the garb of religious and traditional values. Most of the South Asian countries have also had a colonial past. This, in many ways, was pivotal in shaping the economy and the fabric of their societies. In India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, the historical legacy has translated to gender disparity and lower standards of living. Years of deprivation, neglect and other social taboos have created a huge gap in education and employability between men and women in South Asian nations. Historically women have been discriminated against, irrespective of religion, caste, class or social standing. The uninhibited show of masculine superiority and marginalisation of women have been mentioned in Hindu mythology and epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata. In medieval times it was first observed as customary practice in the feudal societies of these countries. This attitude of holding women is lesser regard by men has permeated into the 21st century mind-set. Men are expected to be educated and be the breadwinner for the family while women are restricted to household chores. Women are subjected to this bias from the time they are born. Women are often deprived of education and other human rights. Discrimination in the form of lower pay for equal work is not uncommon in South Asia. Male dominance is not limited to rural regions but is pervasive in modern and urban societies as well. Here are some statistics that compare women’s contribution to the job market in the contemporary world. In the industrialised nations women contribute almost equally to all sectors of the economy. In the US, the percentage of women holding jobs has risen from 37% to 48% between 1970 and 2009 (Barsh & Yee 2011). In comparison, the scenario in India is quite grim. According to the Indian Ministry of Labour and Employment, only 26% of the women contributed towards the total Indian workforce in 2001. Women education has been directly linked to higher standards of living. Higher literacy rates bring about women empowerment and that creates greater accessibility to social benefit programmes, financial and health services. Women’s education impacts the health of their families, they tend to have fewer children, they wed later, and they have more opportunities for employment (Kopell 2013). Child welfare is directly linked to parental education, especially that of the mother. Educated mothers positively impact childrens health, nutrition and educational attainment (Basu, Narayan & Ravallion 2001). Literacy rates in South Asia India is the second most populous nation in the world. According to the 2011 Census, 74% of Indian nationals are literate but there is a discrepancy in the figures between genders. The male literacy rate is 82% whereas female literacy rate is a meagre 65%. In India, education is provided by both public and private establishments. The right to education is a fundamental right guaranteed to every citizen under the Constitution of India by the RTE Act, 2009. According to the latest education report, ASER, 96.5% of all rural children between 6 and 14 years of age and 83% of students of age group 15-16 years were enrolled in school. The educational attainment is checked on several metrics of which the school retention, dropout rates and completion rate are considered for students in primary and secondary levels. However, quality as a metric needs to be looked into. There is a disparity in urban and rural education as well. According to The Economist, many 10 year old children in rural India cannot read at a basic level and about half of them drop out of schools by age 14. Banerjee and Duflo (2006) report that absenteeism among teachers in the government and NGO-run primary schools is over 24%. This is a major disincentive for students attending classes regularly leading to high incidence of school dropouts. To curb this habit among education providers numerous methodologies have been adopted. Some of them involve incentivising the education programmes through rewards and punishment for the providers, by local and external monitoring and the other is by providing scholarship facilities and implementing Mid-Day Meal Scheme for the students. Another highly successful technique was by constituting parent committees encouraging more active parents and teachers’ involvement. Pakistan ranks among the world’s worst countries in terms of gender equality and equitable division of resources and opportunities among men and women, second only to Yemen according to the Global Gender Gap Report- 2013 by the World Economic Forum. Surprisingly, in terms of political empowerment the divide is much lesser; Pakistan ranks at 64 among 136 countries, but in terms of educational attainment, Pakistan is 6th from the bottom. According to the 2011 UNDP’s Human Development Report, women receiving secondary education is half that of men. Here, again, education is considered a fundamental right upheld by the Constitution of Pakistan. However, in reality the gender divide is much greater than envisaged by the Constitution (Haider 2013). Girls have been able to achieve 43% enrolment at the primary school level but at the high school level, this drops to 38%, according to the education report of 2005-06 by the Ministry of Education. What is surprising, however, that in public sector degree colleges, women constitute 62% of the student population. This is encouraging in many ways and the Government is looking to increase funding in the fields of mathematics, science and business administration for girls. This will ensure higher paying jobs for girls instead of being relegated to the home front alone. Bangladesh, in recent years, has been able to break out of its image of being an ailing economy and is a role model for the world in reducing poverty through gender empowerment, although, there is still room for improvement in the field of women’s education (Hussain & Naumi 2010). The Central Intelligence Agency reported that the overall literacy rate in Bangladesh was close to 48% with male literacy at 54% versus women literacy at 41% in 2009. Bangladesh is involved with the global initiative, Education for All, and the government provides free primary education and supplies like books and uniforms along with creating better educational infrastructure. The Government of Bangladesh is also focussing on increasing female representation among primary teachers as an indirect way of increasing the female student population. According to BANBEIS 2010, girl enrolment in primary schools are at 94% but this data does not include the dropout rate which is still quite high owing to socioeconomic and religious prejudices. Reform measures A common problem with the education system in South Asian nations is the dire lack of financial resources needed to establish a network of educational institutions to support the needs of the burgeoning population. Poor infrastructure, underpaid teachers, uninvolved parents and disenchanted students result in low student enrolment and low literacy rates. A major challenge in imparting education to all, under the Millennium Development Goals deadline in 2015, is gender disparity which prevent access of girls to primary education. According to the Global Gender Gap Report, Bangladesh is at the 75th rank, India at 101st and Pakistan is at the 135th position (World Economic Forum 2013). To combat the issues of gender disparity in educational attainment the governments of these countries have enshrined the right to education in their respective Constitutions. However, the problems are deep-seated and enveloped by social, economic and religious prohibitions. Even with the ‘free and compulsory education for all’ initiatives of the governments, the desired results are eluding these nations. Accessibility is not the only reason for low literacy rates among women. The lack of quality education is another reason for ineffective implementation of social benefit programmes. Therefore, the focus should be on both the quality of education and enrolment rates. India is placed in the 101st position among 136 countries in the gender gap report. Social barriers to women education need to be addressed and removed if gender equality is to be achieved. Traditionally, imparting education to a boy is perceived as an investment which increase the earning and social status of the family, whereas, educating a girl is perceived to be a waste of scarce monetary resources because the benefit will be reaped by the family she marries into. Also there are other issues like men not wanting to marry women more educated than themselves (Desai 2007). To bridge this gender gap the Government of India has launched an initiative for achieving universal primary education called the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan placing special emphasis on female education. The two pronged strategy includes creating pull factors, i.e. enhancing access and retention of girl students; and push factors, i.e. making social conditions conducive for guaranteed education to girls. Free textbooks, back-to-school camps for older girls and scholarship schemes at all levels of education, including post-graduation degrees are some of the incentives provided by the government. Apart from these, teacher sensitisation programmes and involvement of mothers in school related activities are encouraged. Although, a major criticism of these schemes revolve around the qualitative aspects, a definite triumph is being able to steadily progress towards the Millennium Development Goals and achieving educational parity in all the South Asian nations. In Bangladesh the socioeconomic scenario is almost identical, although, there have been some significant improvement in health and education of women. Adolescence proves to be the main juncture where girls and boys are viewed and treated differently. They are abruptly pushed into adulthood from childhood and boys have to start earning their living. Girls receive differential treatment as access to livelihood, learning, recreational and social activities are restricted and their mobility constrained. One of the areas of improvement in recent years has been in women participation in economic activities, especially in the garment industry. However, there is a palpable disparity in the wages of men and women workers. The government of Bangladesh looks to overcome these by specifying quotas in employment, but because there is no control or monitoring system, these quotas are rarely ever filled. In Pakistan, there are systemic deficiencies within the educational structure. Many government run schools are non-functional and have been termed ‘ghost’ schools. These schools have absentee teachers; some exist without toilets, some without electricity and some do not even have walls. In this backdrop, The Citizens Foundation, a civil society organisation is working alongside the government to rid the country of illiteracy. They have built 224 school units serving up to 32000 children (Saleem 2005). Recently, the education system in Pakistan has received a lot of international attention. Malala Yousafzai, a Pakistani student and education activist was targeted by the Taliban for protesting against the ban on women’s education. This incident has been responsible for focussing the whole world’s attention towards the reality of girls’ education in Pakistan, especially, because these have been magnified by the involvement of Taliban and other terrorist groups. The education system in all the South Asian nations has to be revised both ideologically and logistically to ensure continuous economic growth, imparting quality education that is accessible and affordable to urban and rural women (Hussain and Naumi 2010). The success achieved at primary level needs to be replicated at the higher levels which can be achieved through greater participation of donor agencies and NGOs and via Public Private Partnerships. There has to be a support mechanism in place to support female enrolment like crèche facilities for younger siblings, reduced fees, and availability of technical and vocational training which will provide a secure future for the young women. Conclusion Perception of role of women in the South Asian society has had a negative impact in the economic and social output. Misinterpretation of religious texts, and existing socio-cultural practices has resulted in a skewed society. Awareness about gender equality has to be spread to all segments of society, especially, about womens rights and government offerings. Education, change in social norms, favourable political and judicial systems, and womens empowerment will help overcome gender disparity. Access to education also encourages women to seek better employment, financial services, and insurance and credit facilities, which would ultimately result in self-sufficiency and independence. Apart from these they are better able to take care of their children and families, which is proven by a significant drop in infant and maternal mortality rates, according to WHO. Many developed nations are partnering with the developing economies to promote gender equality. Several curricula have been chalked up in order to enhance knowledge base of women in agriculture, business and higher studies. Programmes have been initiated to develop leadership skills in women and strengthen institutional capacity through higher education extension and greater outreach to underserved communities (Kopell 2013). Educating women and girls has enormous multiplying effects for families, communities, and societies. Addressing this issue will help nations develop and progress towards an enlightened society and a better, brighter future. References: Azad India Foundation, ‘Educational problems of women in India’. Available from: [26 March 2014] Banerjee, A & Duflo, E 2006, ‘Addressing Absence,’ Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20(1): 117-132. Available from: http://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/089533006776526139 [25 March 2014]. Barsh, J & Yee, L 2011, Unlocking the full potential of women in the US economy, Available from: McKinsey&Company. [24 March 2014]. Desai, S 2007, ‘Gender Disparity in Primary Education: The Experience in India’, UN Chronicle. XLIV(4). Available from: [26 March 2014]. Haider, S 2013, ‘Pakistan second-worst country in gender equality: WEF’, Dawn. Available from: [26 March 2014]. Hussain, F & Naumi, F 2010, ‘On Campus with Women: Global Perspective’, Association of American Colleges and Universities. Fall 2010, 39 (2). Available from: < http://www.aacu.org/ocww/volume39_2/global.cfm> [26 March 2014]. Khan, S 2007, ‘Gender Issues in higher education in Pakistan’, Bulletin, Issue 162, 2007. Kopell, C 2013, Educate Girls, Develop Nations. 18 April 2013. USAID. Available from: [25 March 2014]. Mukherjee, D 2004, ‘Educational Attainment in India: Trends, Patterns and Policy Issues’. Narasinha Dutt College. Available from :< http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/4869/1/MPRA_paper_4869.pdf> Saleem, A 2005, ‘Against the Tide’, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Available from: [26 March 2014]. The Economist, 11 December 2008, ‘Creaking, groaning: Infrastructure is India’s biggest handicap’. Available from: http://www.economist.com/node/12749787 [24 March 2014]. World Economic Forum, 2013, ‘The Global Gender Gap Report 2013’. Available from: [25 March 2014]. Read More